{"id":2068,"date":"2020-09-14T08:42:10","date_gmt":"2020-09-14T08:42:10","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/tamhoc.org\/?p=2068"},"modified":"2020-09-14T08:42:10","modified_gmt":"2020-09-14T08:42:10","slug":"nghiep-trong-triet-hoc-ton-giao-an-do","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/2020\/09\/14\/nghiep-trong-triet-hoc-ton-giao-an-do\/","title":{"rendered":"Nghi\u1ec7p trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc &#8211; t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">2818\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0http:\/\/tamhoc.org\/dulieu\/giaophap\/nhanqualuanhoi\/Nghieptrongtriethoctongiaoando_files\/like.htmlC\u1ee1 ch\u1eef:\u00a0<a href=\"javascript:tsz('article_body','12px')\"><\/a><a href=\"javascript:tsz('article_body','18px')\"><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/tamhoc.org\/dulieu\/giaophap\/nhanqualuanhoi\/Nghieptrongtriethoctongiaoando_files\/karma_domino_272219096.jpg\" alt=\"image\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>S\u1ef1 th\u1ef1c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed d\u1ee9t kho\u00e1t, trong Veda kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i nh\u01b0 ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u ng\u00e0y nay c\u1ea3 trong \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o. \u00dd ngh\u0129a nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i, gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t, l\u00e0 tr\u1ecdng \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u00e1o ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o Veda \u0111\u1ec3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 c\u01b0\u1ee1ng l\u1ea1i xu th\u1ebf l\u1ecbch s\u1eed t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00ean b\u1eaft bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i l\u01b0\u1ee3m nh\u1eb7t nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u00e1o l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt v\u1edbi c\u1ea3i bi\u1ebfn th\u00edch h\u1ee3p theo t\u1eadp qu\u00e1n giai c\u1ea5p.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>I. \u1ea4N \u0110\u1ed8 GI\u00c1O<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>1. Veda &#8211; Upanishad<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Danh t\u1eeb nghi\u1ec7p hay&nbsp;<em>karma<\/em>&nbsp;(skt.) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean trong c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn gi\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9. H\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ec1u xem tr\u1ecdng \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y, trong \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o, Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o (Jainism) v\u00e0 c\u1ea3 trong \u0111\u1ea1o Sikh, c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng chung nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u l\u00fd gi\u1ea3i m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn nhau, k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 trong c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00ednh truy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Veda nh\u01b0 Ny\u0101ya (Ch\u00ednh l\u00fd lu\u1eadn), Vai\u015be\u1e63ika (Th\u1eafng lu\u1eadn), Sa\u1e43khy\u0101 (S\u1ed1 lu\u1eadn), Du-gi\u00e0 (Yoga), Di-man-t\u00e1t (M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101) v\u00e0 Ph\u1ec7-\u0111\u00e0n-\u0111\u00e0 (Ved\u0101nta).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1ea4n li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a t\u1eeb ng\u1eef n\u00e0y ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn cho r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f3 m\u00e0 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o Veda c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i tin t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb th\u1eddi xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 t\u1eeb karman c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n trong c\u00e1c Veda nh\u01b0ng \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng h\u00e0m ch\u1ee9a n\u1ed9i dung nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u sau n\u00e0y.[1]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">T\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng Veda ch\u00ednh y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng t\u1ebf t\u1ef1. H\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 c\u1ed1t l\u00e0m h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng th\u1ea7n linh \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ban th\u01b0\u1edfng; n\u00f3 mang c\u1ea3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 lu\u1eadn. Cho n\u00ean, trong h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, ph\u1ea9m v\u1eadt hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ed1 tr\u00ed theo quy t\u1eafc nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi t\u00e1n t\u1ee5ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c; t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 m\u1edbi t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t ngu\u1ed3n l\u1ef1c v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, v\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n l\u1ef1c n\u00e0y l\u00e0m xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c th\u1ea7n linh. Th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i s\u00e1ng th\u1ebf kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 trong Veda, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u00e0o th\u1eddi h\u1eadu Veda, do th\u00e2u th\u00e1i \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1eeb c\u00e1c ngu\u1ed3n t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng ngo\u00e0i Aryan. Trong t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o Veda, s\u1ef1 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1. T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o Veda tin t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1eb1ng b\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i v\u0129nh c\u1eefu nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c Th\u00e1nh ng\u1eef Veda, v\u00f4 th\u1ee7y v\u00f4 chung. Cho n\u00ean, quy lu\u1eadt&nbsp;<em>karman<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 quy lu\u1eadt v\u0169 tr\u1ee5.[2]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, karman \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng trong c\u00e1c Veda bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 hai ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n: nh\u00e2n sinh quan v\u00e0 v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 lu\u1eadn. V\u1ec1 nh\u00e2n sinh quan, karman li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh vi m\u00e0 h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 s\u1ebd l\u00e0 t\u1ed1t hay x\u1ea5u \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m; v\u00e0 v\u1ec1 \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 lu\u1eadn, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 quy lu\u1eadt \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh v\u0169 tr\u1ee5.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, trong c\u00e1c Veda ch\u01b0a h\u1ec1 th\u1ea5y xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 t\u00e1i sinh lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng h\u00e0m ch\u1ee9a \u00fd ni\u1ec7m gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u0111\u00e2y s\u1ebd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u00fd ni\u1ec7m then ch\u1ed1t trong c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn gi\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o sau Veda.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i t\u00e1i sinh kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 c\u00f3 trong Veda, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y l\u00e0m m\u00edch l\u00f2ng \u0111a s\u1ed1 t\u00edn \u0111\u1ed3 \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o. Nh\u01b0ng n\u1ebfu cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00e0m ch\u1ee9a trong Veda d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng \u1ea9n m\u1eadt, th\u1ebf th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u01b0 v\u1eady ngay c\u1ea3 trong Th\u00e1nh kinh Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa gi\u00e1o.[3]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 trong Veda ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u0169ng t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y tin t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1eb1ng sau khi ch\u1ebft, linh h\u1ed3n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00eca kh\u1ecfi th\u00e2n x\u00e1c v\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n \u1ea5y v\u1eabn t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, tuy v\u1eady, nh\u01b0 Dasgupta nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t, \u201cch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong \u0111\u00f3 b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u n\u00e0o \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n.\u201d[4]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i t\u00e1i sinh v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng. V\u00ec v\u1eady, n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 t\u00e1i sinh v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p trong c\u00e1c Veda \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3. Nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt m\u00e0 th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng trong \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 cao ph\u1ea3i n\u00f3i l\u00e0 Dayananda Saraswati (12 February 1824 \u2013 30 October 1883). \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f4n s\u00f9ng l\u00e0 b\u1eadc \u0110\u1ea1i Ti\u00ean (Maharshi) c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 19, s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp phong tr\u00e0o Arya Samaj v\u1edbi m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i tinh th\u1ea7n nguy\u00ean th\u1ee7y c\u1ee7a Veda m\u00e0 \u00f4ng cho l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb tho\u00e1i h\u00f3a b\u1edfi c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc sau n\u00e0y. M\u1ed9t trong \u00fd ni\u1ec7m c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u0110o\u1ea1n d\u1ecbch Anh v\u0103n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y r\u1ea5t th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00edch d\u1eabn b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o mu\u1ed1n ch\u1ee9ng minh t\u00ednh ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 t\u00e1i sinh b\u1edfi n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i trong Th\u00e1nh \u0111i\u1ec3n Veda: \u201c<em>O Blissful Ishwar, Please provide us again healthy eyes and other sense organs in next birth. Please provide us powerful vitality, mind, intellect, valor again and again in next births&#8230;<\/em>&nbsp;\u201d H\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea5ng Ishwar \u00c2n ph\u01b0\u1edbc, xin h\u00e3y ban tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i cho ch\u00fang t\u00f4i c\u1eb7p m\u1eaft l\u00e0nh m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 c\u00e1c gi\u00e1c quan kh\u00e1c trong l\u1ea7n t\u00e1i sinh k\u1ebf ti\u1ebfp. Xin m\u00e3i m\u00e3i h\u00e3y ban tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i cho ch\u00fang t\u00f4i ngu\u1ed3n l\u1ef1c d\u1ed3i d\u00e0o, t\u00e2m, tr\u00ed v\u00e0 sinh l\u1ef1c trong nh\u1eefng l\u1ea7n t\u00e1i sinh k\u1ebf ti\u1ebfp&#8230;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong \u0111o\u1ea1n d\u1ecbch n\u00e0y xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>next rebirth<\/em>, mu\u1ed1n n\u00eau ch\u1ee9ng c\u1ee9 hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 t\u00e1i sinh ch\u00ednh trong Veda. Nguy\u00ean v\u0103n sanskrit c\u1ee7a \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y trong Rig Veda (RV x.59.6) nh\u01b0 sau:&nbsp;<em>asun\u012bte punar asm\u0101su cak\u1e63u\u1e25 puna\u1e25 pr\u0101\u1e47amiha no dhehibhogham | jyok pa\u015byema s\u016bryam uccarantam anumate m\u1e5b\u1e37ay\u0101 nah svasti ||&nbsp;<\/em>Trong \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 th\u1ea5y c\u00f3 t\u1eeb n\u00e0o \u00e1m ch\u1ec9&nbsp;<em>next rebirth<\/em>, t\u00e1i sinh. R\u00f5 r\u00e0ng Dayanand mu\u1ed1n t\u00e1i l\u1eadp Veda theo \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. \u0110\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i chi\u1ebfu, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111o\u1ea1n d\u1ecbch ti\u1ebfng Anh b\u1edfi Ralph T.H. Griffith nh\u01b0 sau:<em>&nbsp;Give us our sight again, O Asuniti, give us again our breath and our enjoyment. Long may we look upon the Sun uprising; O Anumati, favour thou and bless us<\/em>.[5]&nbsp;L\u1ebd t\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean, Griff kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o, l\u1ea1i l\u00e0 con c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t m\u1ee5c s\u01b0, n\u00ean b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch Anh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ea5y tin t\u01b0\u1edfng, ngo\u00e0i vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng l\u00e0m t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u1ebfu c\u00e1ch di\u1ec5n d\u1ecbch c\u1ee7a Dayanand kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ngo\u00e0i \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o tin t\u01b0\u1edfng, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng tin r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c Veda l\u00e0 l\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ec3 c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i hi\u1ec3u b\u1eb1ng tri ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Th\u1ea7n. V\u1edbi h\u1ecd, c\u00e1c Veda c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 h\u1ebft th\u1ea3y Th\u00e1nh th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, ph\u1ea3n \u1ea3nh tr\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ed9 t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t giai \u0111o\u1ea1n v\u0103n minh ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh. N\u00f3 l\u00e0 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00ean c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u trong b\u1ed1i c\u1ea3nh hay ng\u1eef c\u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00e1c thi t\u1ee5ng Veda trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a l\u1ecbch s\u1eed v\u0103n minh \u1ea4n ch\u1ec9 li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Aryan v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n linh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. Ch\u1ebft hay s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n d\u1ecbch qua l\u1ea1i gi\u1eefa \u0111\u00e1m qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb n\u00e0y; kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 n\u01a1i m\u00e0 h\u1ea1ng&nbsp;<em>p\u1e5bthag<\/em>, h\u1ea1ng ph\u00e0m d\u00e2n, \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p h\u1ea1 li\u1ec7t, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tham d\u1ef1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ho\u1eb7c n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng tin t\u01b0\u1edfng lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i t\u00e1i sinh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y nhi\u1ec1u n\u01a1i trong c\u00e1c b\u1ed9 l\u1ea1c b\u00e1n khai, hay trong m\u1ed9t giai \u0111o\u1ea1n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn;[6]&nbsp;\u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 v\u00e0 Hy-l\u1ea1p l\u00e0 hai d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c c\u00f3 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i; nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi t\u00ednh ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t giai c\u1ea5p, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tin l\u00e0 ch\u00ednh do Th\u1ea7n S\u00e1ng T\u1ea1o Brahman thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp, ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n cho \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c giai c\u1ea5p. Cho n\u00ean, trong qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9, c\u00e1c Veda c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Aryan m\u00e0 giai c\u1ea5p b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n l\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1eb3ng t\u1ea5t kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng sau khi ch\u1ebft gi\u1ea3 s\u1eed do t\u1ed9i \u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m m\u00e0 h\u1ecd ph\u1ea3i t\u00e1i sinh v\u00e0o c\u00e1c giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ea5p. T\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00e0y c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y ghi ch\u00e9p trong kinh Ph\u1eadt v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n b\u00e0i tr\u1eeb. Cho n\u00ean, Veda kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i t\u00e1i sinh l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1ea3 l\u1ea1i, t\u00e1i sinh ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tin t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u1ebfu c\u00f9ng l\u00fac tin t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u00f3 nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o. \u00dd ngh\u0129a nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u trong kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n v\u00e0 c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, kh\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 trong c\u00e1c Veda. B\u1edfi v\u00ec, gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i l\u00e0 m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch t\u1ed1i h\u1eadu c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt ph\u00e1p. \u00dd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>mukti<\/em>) c\u0169ng ch\u01b0a h\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n trong c\u00e1c Veda. T\u1ebf t\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Veda ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eafm \u0111\u1ebfn hai m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1eddi ng\u01b0\u1eddi: s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1eddi hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i v\u1edbi m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n (<em>artha<\/em>), v\u00e0 sau khi ch\u1ebft th\u00ec sinh thi\u00ean (<em>svarga<\/em>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ebfn khi xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c Upanishad d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng t\u1eadp th\u00e0nh, \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c l\u1eadp nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn t\u00e1i sinh v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. Trong Th\u00e1nh \u0111i\u1ec3n nguy\u00ean th\u1ee7y Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 ba Veda \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn. Nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb th\u00f4ng th\u1ea1o ch\u00fang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>tevijj\u0101 brahma\u1e47a<\/em>&nbsp;(P\u0101li), H\u00e1n d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 \u201ctam minh b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n\u201d. Nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb n\u00e0y tuy\u00ean truy\u1ec1n h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ed9ng tr\u1ee5 v\u1edbi Ph\u1ea1m thi\u00ean (<em>brahmasahabyat<\/em><em>\u0101=brahma-vih\u0101ra<\/em>); t\u00edn l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft trong c\u00e1c t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o nh\u1ea5t th\u1ea7n: s\u1ef1 h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t hay hi\u1ec7p th\u00f4ng v\u1edbi Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf.&nbsp;<em>Tevijj\u0101-sutta<\/em>&nbsp;li\u1ec7t k\u00ea danh s\u00e1ch c\u00e1c b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec1 x\u01b0\u1edbng thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0ng h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t quan \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng truy\u1ec1n th\u1eeba v\u1ec1 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e0o l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh.[7]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 danh s\u00e1ch li\u1ec7t k\u00ea trong Kinh cho th\u1ea5y d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c Upanishad t\u1ed1i c\u1ed5; nh\u01b0ng b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 manh nha \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea5ng Ph\u1ea1m thi\u00ean h\u1eefu ng\u00e3, ch\u1ee9 ch\u01b0a ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1o s\u1ef9 trong d\u00f2ng truy\u1ec1n th\u1eeba n\u00e0y c\u00f3 \u00fd ni\u1ec7m g\u00ec v\u1ec1 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u00f5 r\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p qu\u1ea3. T\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean, n\u1ebfu hi\u1ec3u nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi v\u00e0 b\u00e1o \u1ee9ng c\u1ee7a h\u00e0nh vi, th\u00ec ngay c\u1ea3 trong Veda ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta v\u1eabn t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 th\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ea1t: nh\u1eefng ai l\u00e0m t\u1ed1t s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 t\u1ed1t, n\u1ebfu l\u00e0m x\u1ea5u th\u00ec tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i s\u1ebd b\u1ecb tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng trong m\u1ecdi n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh khi x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ebfn giai \u0111o\u1ea1n c\u00f3 t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c, lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp. Kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 b\u1eb1ng v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 n\u00f3i c\u00f3 tin t\u01b0\u1edfng nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng trong c\u00e1c Upanishad \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean, \u0111\u00e2y c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 tri\u1ec3n khai \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng nh\u01b0 v\u1eeba n\u00f3i tr\u00ean l\u00ean c\u1ea5p l\u00fd lu\u1eadn cao h\u01a1n. Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u1ecdc th\u1ea5y trong&nbsp;<em>B\u1e5bhad-arany\u0101ka-upanishad<\/em>: \u201cN\u00f3 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o th\u00ec n\u00f3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf \u0111\u00f3; h\u00e0nh thi\u1ec7n, n\u00f3 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi thi\u1ec7n; h\u00e0nh \u00e1c, n\u00f3 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00e1c. B\u1eb1ng ph\u01b0\u1edbc nghi\u1ec7p m\u00e0 n\u00f3 th\u00e0nh k\u1ebb ph\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ee9c; b\u1eb1ng \u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p m\u00e0 n\u00f3 th\u00e0nh k\u1ebb \u00e1c \u0111\u1ee9c. Nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb kh\u00e1c th\u00ec n\u00f3i, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 do b\u1edfi d\u1ee5c. N\u00f3 c\u00f3 d\u1ee5c nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o, th\u00ec n\u00f3 c\u00f3 quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf \u1ea5y; n\u00f3 c\u00f3 quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o th\u00ec n\u00f3 t\u1ea1o nghi\u1ec7p nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf \u1ea5y; v\u00e0 n\u00f3 t\u1ea1o nghi\u1ec7p nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o th\u00ec n\u00f3 nh\u1eadn k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf \u1ea5y.\u201d[8]&nbsp;Nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u01b0 v\u1eady kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c, v\u00e0 l\u1ea1i c\u00e0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp trong Veda (Rig-Veda). Tuy nhi\u00ean, \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p n\u00e0y c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9ng minh l\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt. Trong th\u1eddi Ph\u1eadt, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 ba Veda \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn. B\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn th\u1ee9 t\u01b0 c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c Brahma\u1e47a (Ph\u1ea1m th\u01b0) c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn trong th\u1eddi Ph\u1eadt.[9]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u00ec \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i ch\u01b0a xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n trong c\u00e1c Veda, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c Upanishad c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n sau th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt, cho n\u00ean n\u1ebfu n\u01a1i n\u00e0o c\u00e1c Upanishad n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p, th\u00ec \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u1ea5y n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, th\u00ec c\u0169ng t\u1eeb ngu\u1ed3n \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng kh\u00e1c, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u1eeb Veda nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c v\u1ecb \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o ng\u00e0y nay qu\u1ea3 quy\u1ebft. Quan ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p m\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh t\u00edn l\u00fd trong \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1eadp th\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 trong Ved\u0101nta v\u00e0 trong Bhagavad-g\u012bta, sau Ph\u1eadt nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>2. Ti\u1ec1n-<\/strong><strong>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong th\u1eddi Ph\u1eadt, c\u00e1c b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi truy\u1ec1n t\u1ee5ng Veda. Nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb n\u00e0y c\u0169ng th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean \u0111\u1ebfn tranh lu\u1eadn v\u1edbi Ph\u1eadt. V\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a \u0101tman th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t Brahman s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o c\u0169ng th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn; hai ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng trong c\u00e1c Upanishad. Nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 t\u00e1i sinh l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ch\u1ee7 \u0111i\u1ec3m h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft, ho\u1eb7c thu\u1eadn ho\u1eb7c ngh\u1ecbch, c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ngo\u00e0i Veda trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt. Nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ec1 t\u00e0i n\u00e0y ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c lu\u1eadn thu\u1eadt trong c\u00e1c Kinh th\u01b0 \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o s\u1edbm nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng sau th\u1eddi A-d\u1ee5c v\u01b0\u01a1ng, ho\u1eb7c k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb tri\u1ebft gia \u015aa\u1e45kara tr\u1edf \u0111i, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 Ved\u0101nta h\u1eadu-\u015aa\u1e45kara v\u00e0 Bhagavadg\u012bta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n l\u00fac m\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn cao \u0111\u1ed9.&nbsp;<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp; \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c so\u1ea1n b\u1edfi Jaimini kho\u1ea3ng sau Ph\u1eadt th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i A-d\u1ee5c,[10]&nbsp;kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1edfi c\u00e1c thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i Veda ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To\u00e0n b\u1ed9 h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 xoay quanh ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1&nbsp;<em>dharma<\/em>&nbsp;(ph\u00e1p).[11]&nbsp;Trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 lu\u1eadn, n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 cho quy lu\u1eadt t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 cho m\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 h\u1eefu. Trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, n\u00f3 l\u00e0 lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c. Nh\u01b0ng n\u1ed9i dung t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 l\u00e0 t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, cho n\u00ean ph\u00e1p \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 ph\u00e1p quy Veda; t\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng ph\u1eadn s\u1ef1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0 ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n (<em>codana<\/em>) b\u1edfi Veda. C\u00e1c Veda kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, cho n\u00ean nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi thi t\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a Veda xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb \u00e2m thanh t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, v\u00ec t\u1ef1 t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a \u00e2m thanh n\u00e0y l\u00e0 t\u1ef1 h\u1eefu, th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng. M\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 sinh thi\u00ean (<em>svarga<\/em>). \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00fa t\u1eeb c\u00e1c Brahma\u1e47a (Ph\u1ea1m th\u01b0):&nbsp;<em>agnihotra\u1e43 juhuy\u0101t svargak\u0101ma\u1e25<\/em>, \u201cAi mu\u1ed1n&nbsp;<em>sinh thi\u00ean<\/em>, h\u00e3y t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 th\u1ea7n L\u1eeda.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Svarga<\/em>&nbsp;hay sinh thi\u00ean l\u00e0 \u00fd ni\u1ec7m c\u00f3 t\u1eeb Veda. Trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt, \u0111\u1ea1i b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn nh\u1eefng gia ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi Ph\u1eadt ch\u1ec9 v\u1edbi m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch n\u00e0y, v\u00e0 Ph\u1eadt kh\u00f4ng t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i, c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 h\u1ecd con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng sinh thi\u00ean, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 v\u00e0 c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n, m\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 tr\u00ec gi\u1edbi v\u00e0 b\u1ed1 th\u00ed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Sinh thi\u00ean trong M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ea5t ph\u00e1c nh\u01b0 trong t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang, m\u00e0 n\u00f3 h\u00e0m ch\u1ee9a m\u1ed9t \u00fd ngh\u0129a si\u00eau h\u00ecnh. Thi\u00ean gi\u1edbi trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0 ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng l\u00e0 n\u01a1i m\u00e0 d\u1ee5c l\u1ea1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 h\u01a1n v\u00e0 l\u00e2u d\u00e0i h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi trong th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ph\u00e0m tr\u1ea7n. Kinh Ph\u1eadt \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ea1 th\u1ea5p gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a thi\u00ean gi\u1edbi v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 ra c\u00f2n c\u00f3 l\u1ea1c th\u1ecd cao h\u01a1n n\u1eefa v\u00e0 thanh khi\u1ebft h\u01a1n, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 l\u1ea1c do thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh. T\u1ee9c trong&nbsp; ph\u1ea1m vi sinh t\u1eed, c\u00f3 hai con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ec3 h\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ecd l\u1ea1c \u0111\u1eddi sau cao h\u01a1n lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi: Thi\u00ean \u0111\u1ea1o (<em>dev\u0101yana<\/em>) cho ch\u01b0 thi\u00ean D\u1ee5c gi\u1edbi m\u00e0 s\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1ea1c kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh, v\u00e0 Ph\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ea1o (<em>Brahm\u0101yana<\/em>), con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ecdng tr\u00fa v\u1edbi Ph\u1ea1m thi\u00ean b\u1eb1ng tu t\u1eadp c\u00e1c b\u1eadc thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh. Cao nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 l\u1ea1c v\u00f4 l\u1eadu gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng Th\u00e1nh \u0111\u1ea1o (<em>\u0101ry\u0101yana<\/em>). M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 nguy\u00ean th\u1ee7y ch\u1ec9 th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn&nbsp;<em>svarga<\/em>&nbsp;nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i trong Veda n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn hai \u0111\u1ea1o kia; v\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 l\u00e0 ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n duy nh\u1ea5t c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i tu\u00e2n theo, do \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh. S\u0101bara quy\u1ebft li\u1ec7t kh\u00f4ng th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng kinh nghi\u1ec7m gi\u00e1c quan c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u00ean gi\u1edbi&nbsp;<em>svarga<\/em>. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i g\u1ed3m hai m\u1eb7t:&nbsp;<em>d\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>, kh\u1ea3 ki\u1ebfn v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>, v\u00f4 ki\u1ebfn. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng Devadatta c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng, nh\u01b0ng y kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t trong nh\u00e0 n\u00e0y, v\u1eady y ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t \u1edf m\u1ed9t n\u01a1i n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3. Ho\u1eb7c th\u00ed d\u1ee5 b\u1ed5 t\u00fac b\u1edfi Kum\u0101rila: M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ecfe m\u1ea1nh nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y y \u0103n l\u00fac n\u00e0o v\u00e0o ban ng\u00e0y, v\u1eady nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh y c\u00f3 \u0103n v\u00e0o ban \u0111\u00eam. L\u00fd lu\u1eadn n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>arth\u0101patti<\/em><em><strong>[12]<\/strong><\/em>, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 \u201cgi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1eb7c nhi\u00ean\u201d. N\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong s\u00e1u ngu\u1ed3n nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c hay ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb \u0111\u00fang (<em>pram\u0101\u1e47a<\/em>)[13]&nbsp;m\u00e0 Kum\u0101rila l\u1eadp n\u00ean \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i trong Veda. L\u00fd lu\u1eadn n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng cho h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, b\u01a1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ebf v\u00e0o l\u1eeda. Sau t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, l\u1eeda t\u1eaft v\u00e0 b\u01a1 c\u0169ng th\u00e0nh tro, v\u1eady c\u00e1i g\u00ec t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i sau t\u1ebf l\u1ec5 \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1eabn ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 sinh thi\u00ean? B\u01a1 v\u00e0 l\u1eeda trong h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y b\u1eb1ng m\u1eaft (<em>d\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>: kh\u1ea3 ki\u1ebfn), nh\u01b0ng k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng m\u1eaft (<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>: v\u00f4 ki\u1ebfn). Kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y m\u00e0 cho l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3. V\u00ec k\u1ebft q\u1ee7a sinh thi\u00ean l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n trong Veda. Y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t sinh trong h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00ednh l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;(ti\u1ec1n v\u00f4, hay phi b\u1ea3n), c\u00e1i m\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 ch\u01b0a h\u1ec1 c\u00f3, m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n. Nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i thu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea1m vi suy lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb gi\u00e1c quan hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3.&nbsp;<em>Ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u1eady, tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, nh\u01b0 nh\u00e0 \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 h\u1ecdc danh ti\u1ebfng hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00c1o, W. Halbfass, kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh: kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 tham chi\u1ebfu minh v\u0103n n\u00f3i v\u1ec1&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;trong<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;c\u1ee7a Jaimini. Ch\u00ednh \u015a\u0101bara trong s\u1edb gi\u1ea3i M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t t\u1eeb n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00fd gi\u1ea3i quan h\u1ec7 nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 qu\u1ea3.[14]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u015aabara (Savara-svam\u012b) xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111o\u00e1n \u0111\u1ecbnh kho\u1ea3ng \u0111\u1ea7u k\u1ef7 nguy\u00ean T\u00e2y l\u1ecbch.[15]&nbsp;\u0110\u1ea5y l\u00e0 th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 m\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u1ed9 ph\u00e1i Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn cao \u0111\u1ed9, m\u1ed7i ph\u00e1i \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t nh\u1eefng l\u00fd gi\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p r\u1ea5t \u0111a d\u1ea1ng, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eadp th\u00e0nh chi ti\u1ebft trong&nbsp;<em>\u0110\u1ea1i T\u00ec-b\u00e0-sa<\/em>&nbsp;v\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y t\u00f3m t\u1eaft trong&nbsp;<em>C\u00e2u-x\u00e1<\/em>. \u015a\u0101bara c\u00f3 bi\u1ebft v\u00e0 ch\u1ecbu t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c n\u00e0o, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u015a\u0101bara cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00ednh&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00e0m ng\u1ee5 trong \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;v\u1ec1&nbsp;<em>dharma<\/em>: \u201c\u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>dharma<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u00ednh l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>codana<\/em>.\u201d&nbsp;[16]&nbsp;V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t ng\u1eef ph\u00e1p,&nbsp;<em>ap<\/em><em>\u016b<\/em><em>rva<\/em>&nbsp;l\u00e0 gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu (<em>arth\u0101patti<\/em>) t\u1eeb ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y:&nbsp;<em>svargak\u0101mo yajeta<\/em>, \u201cAi mu\u1ed1n sinh thi\u00ean, h\u00e3y t\u1ebf t\u1ef1\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Tr\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ebft, v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn, t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>svarga<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9ng minh b\u1eb1ng thanh l\u01b0\u1ee3ng (<em>\u015babda-pram\u0101\u1e47a<\/em>). Ng\u1eef thanh c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ea5t ph\u1ea3i d\u00f9ng s\u1ee9c, c\u1ed1 \u00fd, cho n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng. Ng\u1eef thanh c\u1ee7a Veda kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i do con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i t\u1eeb c\u00e1c th\u1ea7n linh (<em>apauru\u1e63eya<\/em>), cho n\u00ean t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, t\u1ef1 h\u1eefu (<em>autpatti<\/em>) v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 h\u1eb1ng h\u1eefu (<em>nitya<\/em>). Ch\u00ednh do nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh n\u00e0y m\u00e0 ng\u1eef thanh c\u1ee7a Veda l\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n ch\u00e2n l\u00fd c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c. Veda n\u00f3i:&nbsp;<em>svarga<\/em>; v\u1eady&nbsp;<em>svarga<\/em>&nbsp;t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. B\u1edfi v\u00ec trong l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, m\u1ed7i ng\u1eef thanh (<em>\u015babda<\/em>) \u0111\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i g\u00ec hay \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t \u00fd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 (<em>artha<\/em>);[17]&nbsp;cho n\u00ean t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>svarga<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Veda n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 t\u1eeb r\u1ed7ng, t\u1ea5t ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0o th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i th\u1ef1c h\u1eefu, m\u00e0 th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i n\u00e0y v\u01b0\u1ee3t ngo\u00e0i kinh nghi\u1ec7m gi\u00e1c quan c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ebfn, v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t ng\u1eef ph\u00e1p, trong m\u1ec7nh \u0111\u1ec1, \u015a\u0101bara nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u1ebfn \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u00e0 ch\u1ee9c n\u0103ng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb.&nbsp; \u00d4ng n\u00f3i, \u201cC\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ng\u1eef thanh&nbsp; \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e1t ng\u1eef h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eadn bi\u1ebft \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>. B\u1edfi \u0111\u00f3, ch\u00fang ta n\u00f3i ch\u00ednh th\u1ec3 thanh (<em>bh\u0101va\u015babda<\/em>: \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb) m\u1eddi g\u1ecdi&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>. Nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ng\u1eef thanh n\u00e0o tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp ph\u00e1t ng\u1eef cho&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>. Cho n\u00ean, ch\u00ednh c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a th\u1ec3 thanh k\u00eau d\u1eady nghi\u1ec7p thanh l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>.\u201d[18]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ec3 thanh (<em>bh\u0101va\u015babda<\/em>) ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb v\u00ec n\u00f3 l\u00e0m xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p thanh (<em>karma\u015babda<\/em>), t\u00fac t\u1eeb c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb. Trong ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, th\u1ec3 thanh n\u00e0y l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>yajeta<\/em>. N\u00f3 l\u00e0m cho c\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1eadt t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n th\u1ec3 th\u00e0nh&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>, th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c ti\u1ec1m \u1ea9n, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kinh nghi\u1ec7m b\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3m quan. Qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>bh\u0101van\u0101<\/em>, hu\u00e2n t\u1eadp hay t\u1eadp th\u00e0nh. T\u1eeb n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong c\u00e1c b\u1ed9 ph\u00e1i Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh t\u00edch l\u0169y n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7p, qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh bi\u1ebfn chuy\u1ec3n c\u00f4ng n\u0103ng trong h\u1ea1t gi\u1ed1ng li\u00ean t\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ec3 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng cho xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n ch\u1ed3i non v\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng l\u00e0 hoa tr\u00e1i. Hu\u00e2n t\u1eadp trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, Sanskrit n\u00f3i l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>bh\u0101van\u0101<\/em>, n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c l\u00e0m cho tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh. Hu\u00e2n t\u1eadp \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00edch l\u0169y th\u00e0nh qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9, Sanskrit n\u00f3i l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>v\u0101san\u0101<\/em>, nh\u01b0 m\u00f9i th\u01a1m t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i trong d\u1ea7u m\u00e8 sau khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u01b0\u1edbp hoa. \u00dd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i r\u00f5 trong&nbsp;<em>C\u00e2u-x\u00e1<\/em>&nbsp;v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>Th\u00e0nh nghi\u1ec7p lu\u1eadn<\/em>. S\u0101bara \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea3i bi\u1ebfn n\u00f3 th\u00e0nh \u201cc\u00e1i ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng c\u00f3 tr\u01b0\u1edbc\u201d xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n theo c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7u t\u00e1n ca c\u00e1c thi t\u1ee5ng Veda.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Halbfass cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>mok\u1e63a<\/em>) v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i (<em>sa\u1e43s\u0101ra<\/em>), nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 quan tr\u1ecdng trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9, kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ea5y l\u01b0u t\u00e2m b\u1edfi S\u0101bara. Tuy nhi\u00ean, t\u1eeb Kum\u0101rila, v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 bao qu\u00e1t, c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh quan tr\u1ecdng. Cho \u0111\u1ebfn ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p, kh\u1edfi th\u1ee7y ch\u1ec9 gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n trong h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi Kum\u0101rila, n\u00f3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh nguy\u00ean l\u00ed nh\u00e2n qu\u1ea3 ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t, nh\u1eafm l\u00fd gi\u1ea3i \u00fd ngh\u0129a lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i, v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh tr\u1ecdng \u0111i\u1ec3m l\u00fd lu\u1eadn.[19]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kum\u0101rila, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t trong c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng h\u00f3a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101,[20]&nbsp;xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n kho\u1ea3ng 660, giai \u0111o\u1ea1n m\u00e0 t\u00f4ng ph\u00e1i Du-gi\u00e0 h\u00e0nh (Yog\u0101c\u0101rin) l\u1eadp b\u1edfi V\u00f4 Tr\u01b0\u1edbc (Asa\u1e45ga) v\u00e0 Th\u1ebf Th\u00e2n (Vasubandhu), v\u00e0 lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n b\u1edfi Dign\u0101ga (Tr\u1ea7n-na, tr\u01b0\u1edbc Huy\u1ec1n Trang, kho\u1ea3ng 480-540) v\u00e0 Dharmak\u012brti (Ph\u00e1p X\u1ee9ng, sau Huy\u1ec1n Trang, kho\u1ea3ng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 7 tl.), \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn cao \u0111\u1ed9. Cu\u1ed9c lu\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn v\u00e0 chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng c\u1ee7a Huy\u1ec1n Trang v\u1edbi c\u00e1c danh s\u0129 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 v\u00e0o n\u0103m 643 Tl. d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o tr\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a vua Har\u1e63avardhana cho th\u1ea5y Duy th\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o \u0111ang chi\u1ebfm l\u0129nh v\u0169 \u0111\u00e0i t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng. Kum\u0101rila xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng kho\u1ea3ng n\u1eeda th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 sau \u0111\u00f3. D\u01b0\u1edbi \u00e1p l\u1ef1c lu\u1eadn l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 \u0111\u00e3 li\u00ean k\u1ebft v\u1edbi lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Ny\u0101ya v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111a nguy\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Vai\u015be\u1e63ika \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Veda.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">K\u1ebf th\u1eeba S\u0101bara, Kum\u0101rila ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n l\u00fd lu\u1eadn M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101. T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n Kum\u0101rila \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng c\u1ea3i trang v\u00e0o Nalanda nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u Ph\u1eadt h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Dharmak\u012brti truy\u1ec1n d\u1ea1y do \u0111\u00f3 r\u1ea5t tinh th\u00f4ng lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc. C\u1ed1ng hi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila cho lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 n\u00f3i chung \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng d\u01b0\u1edbi Dign\u0101ga. Nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila n\u00f3i ri\u00eang v\u00e0 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 n\u00f3i chung l\u00e0 kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c ni\u1ec1m tin v\u00e0o t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 Veda v\u00e0 ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 giai c\u1ea5p kh\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7t, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ea5m nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb t\u1eadt nguy\u1ec1n v\u00e0 giai c\u1ea5p Sudra c\u1eed h\u00e0nh t\u1ebf t\u1ef1.[21]&nbsp;\u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u00ednh g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n v\u00e0o vi\u1ec7c lo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o ra kh\u1ecfi \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9. C\u0169ng ch\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y m\u00e0 m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 Kum\u0101rila l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00f4 th\u1ea7n, b\u00e1c b\u1ecf s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o, \u00f4ng v\u00e0 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 v\u1eabn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 thu\u1ed9c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Veda ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch ch\u00ednh trong s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila l\u00e0 ch\u1ee9ng minh&nbsp; Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o l\u00e0 t\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft, v\u00ec n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Veda. \u0110\u1ec3 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch n\u00e0y, Kum\u0101rila \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ed1n c\u00f4ng h\u1ecdc k\u1ef9 nh\u00e2n minh lu\u1eadn, ng\u00e0nh lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, v\u00e0 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u0111\u1ed1i kh\u00e1ng v\u1edbi Dign\u0101ga v\u00e0 Dharmak\u012brti. Trong khi Din\u0101ga th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 hai ngu\u1ed3n nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c \u0111\u00e1ng tin c\u1eady, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng hay tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c, v\u00e0 t\u1ec9 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u1ee9c suy l\u00fd nh\u00e2n qu\u1ea3, Kum\u0101rila th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp s\u00e1u ngu\u1ed3n nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c trong \u0111\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n ch\u00e2n l\u00fd tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i l\u00e0 Veda. Nh\u1eefng nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c n\u00e0o kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb Veda \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 sai l\u1ea7m. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila, khi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u00e2u kinh 134 c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00f3m t\u1eaft nh\u01b0 sau: T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd kh\u00f4ng xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb Veda \u0111\u1ec1u sai l\u1ea7m, v\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thuy\u1ebft b\u1edfi c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n kh\u00e1c (nh\u01b0 tham, v\u00e0 si). Thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Th\u00edch-ca v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c sai l\u1ea7m, v\u00ec thuy\u1ebft b\u1edfi si ho\u1eb7c tham.[22]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn c\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila l\u00e0 n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i b\u1edfi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, c\u00f3 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3. V\u00ec c\u00f3 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 n\u00ean c\u00f3 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u. C\u00f3 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng. V\u00ec kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng cho n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd. Tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i, Veda kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u, n\u00ean v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd. Ch\u00ednh v\u00ec b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng c\u1ee7a Veda m\u00e0 Kum\u0101rila b\u00e1c lu\u00f4n c\u1ea3 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o. V\u00ec c\u00f3 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o t\u1ea5t ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u00e0 c\u0169ng ch\u00ednh v\u00ec ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o n\u00ean M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 t\u00ecm m\u1ed9t nguy\u00ean l\u00fd kh\u1ea3 d\u0129 \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u00e0 nh\u00e2n sinh. Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 karma \u2013 nghi\u1ec7p. Do v\u1eady, tuy nguy\u00ean th\u1ee7y nghi\u1ec7p gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n trong h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb Kum\u0101rila v\u1ec1 sau n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tri\u1ec3n khai r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n. Karma \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e2ng l\u00ean th\u00e0nh quy lu\u1eadt ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t: Lu\u1eadt Karma. Lu\u1eadt n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh v\u0169 tr\u1ee5. Cho n\u00ean, M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u t\u01b0 duy chi\u00eam nghi\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 ph\u00e1p (dharma), \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh v\u1ec1 ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Veda, v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n n\u00e0y b\u1eb1ng quy lu\u1eadt karma.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ho\u1eb7c do v\u00ec trong s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, quan h\u1ec7 v\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng h\u1ed7 t\u01b0\u01a1ng gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean; ho\u1eb7c do v\u00ec trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ea7u M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 ch\u1ec9 ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 ph\u00e1p (dharma) v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p (karma) cho n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c y\u00eau c\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u00e0 ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh; c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 v\u1ec1 sau, ho\u1eb7c Kum\u0101rila v\u00ec b\u1eadn t\u00e2m b\u00e0i b\u00e1c Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o n\u00ean t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn v\u00e0 lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc. C\u1ea3 hai chi ph\u00e1i M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 v\u1ec1 sau,&nbsp; Bha\u1e6d\u1e6da d\u01b0\u1edbi \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila, v\u00e0 d\u01b0\u1edbi \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Prabh\u0101kara, th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn c\u00e1c ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Ny\u0101ya-Vai\u015be\u1e63ika (Ch\u00ednh l\u00fd v\u00e0 Th\u1eafng lu\u1eadn); ch\u1ec9 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf ph\u1ea7n nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn, s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 trong ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 ph\u1ea9m t\u00ednh (<em>gu\u1e47a<\/em>: \u0111\u1ee9c) c\u1ee7a Th\u1eafng lu\u1eadn.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1, gi\u1eefa Vai\u015be\u1e63ika v\u00e0 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec3m t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng, cho n\u00ean Dasgupta \u0111\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi: \u201cPh\u1ea3i ch\u0103ng Vai\u015be\u1e63ika \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u cho m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i c\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101?\u201d[23]&nbsp;\u0110i\u1ec3m \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>Vai\u015be\u1e63ikas\u016btra<\/em>, c\u0169ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0&nbsp;<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016bra<\/em>, m\u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u b\u1eb1ng gi\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 dharma[24], ti\u1ebfp sau \u0111\u00f3 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a Veda l\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c c\u00f3 th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n t\u1ed1i th\u01b0\u1ee3ng.[25]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft, trong khi lu\u1eadn ch\u1ee9ng v\u1ec1&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>, S\u0101bara \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>&nbsp;nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 c\u01a1 s\u1edf \u0111\u1ec3 suy l\u00fd. Trong Vai\u015be\u1e63ika,&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>, m\u1ed9t y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 trong c\u00fa ngh\u0129a v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p (<em>karma-pad\u0101rtha<\/em>), c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m nh\u01b0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>, duy ch\u1ec9 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>&nbsp;thu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea1m vi nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c th\u01b0\u1eddng nghi\u1ec7m, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y b\u1eb1ng m\u1eaft.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 nghi\u1ec7p trong Vai\u015be\u1e63ika bao h\u00e0m r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i, ch\u1ec9 cho v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi v\u1eadt th\u1ec3, th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3. \u0110\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a c\u0103n b\u1ea3n v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p,&nbsp;<em>Vai\u015be\u1e63ikas\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;n\u00f3i, do t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng v\u1edbi t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 (<em>\u0101tma-sa\u1e43yoga<\/em>) v\u00e0 do d\u1ee5ng \u00fd c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 (<em>\u0101tma-pray\u0101na<\/em>) m\u00e0 c\u00f3 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u01a1i b\u00e0n tay.[26]&nbsp;C\u00e1c hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean nh\u01b0 n\u01b0\u1edbc h\u00fat trong th\u00e2n c\u00e2y, l\u1eeda b\u1ed1c l\u00ean, s\u1eaft b\u1ecb h\u00fat b\u1edfi nam ch\u00e2m, cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ecfi v\u00e0ng do b\u00f9a ch\u00fa t\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn tay t\u00ean tr\u1ed9m, nh\u1eefng hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p, nh\u01b0ng b\u00ean trong ch\u00fang ti\u1ec1m \u1ea9n y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u00f4 ki\u1ebfn (<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6d<\/em><em>a<\/em>) v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh. Nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1nh tay c\u1eed \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e2ng l\u00ean, \u0111\u1ec3 xu\u1ed1ng v.v. \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch l\u00e0 do \u00fd (<em>manas<\/em>). S\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t kh\u1ecfi th\u00e2n (: ch\u1ebft) hay nh\u1eadp th\u00e2n kh\u00e1c (: t\u00e1i sinh) c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh b\u1edfi y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u00f4 ki\u1ebfn n\u00e0y. Y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u00f4 ki\u1ebfn hay&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>&nbsp;nh\u01b0 v\u1eady l\u00e0 th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c ti\u1ec1m \u1ea9n c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p hay v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng, chi ph\u1ed1i t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, t\u1eeb v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ebfn tinh th\u1ea7n. Halbfass cho r\u1eb1ng kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>&nbsp;n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 l\u1ef1c ti\u1ec1m \u1ea9n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh vi qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea9m t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3, kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 cung c\u1ea5p cho Kum\u0101rila v\u00e0 c\u00e1c t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 sau m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3n h\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>.[27]&nbsp;V\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ea3n h\u1ed3i, c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u&nbsp; trong Ny\u0101ya-Vai\u015be\u1e63ika v\u1ec1 sau thu nh\u1eadp \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;t\u1eeb thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila \u0111\u1ec3 m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>[28]&nbsp;T\u1eeb sau Kum\u0101rila, c\u00e1c t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ad\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6da<\/em>&nbsp;th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3ng ngh\u0129a.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">H\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 \u0111i\u1ec3m t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1ea4n \u0111\u1ed9, k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 trong ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadt, \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfp nh\u1eadn v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3i bi\u1ebfn th\u00edch h\u1ee3p. Ngay c\u1ea3 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u00f4 th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ec7n minh \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng h\u1eefu th\u1ea7n chung c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>3. Ved\u0101nta-Bhagavadg\u012bta<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ved\u0101nta &lt;&nbsp;<em>Veda \u2013 anta<\/em>: c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a Veda, ch\u1ec9 cho ph\u1ea7n cu\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a Veda t\u1ee9c c\u00e1c Upanishad. V\u0103n hi\u1ebfn Veda ph\u00e2n l\u00e0m b\u1ed1n ph\u1ea7n: Sa\u1e43hita, Br\u0101hm\u0101\u1e47a, Ara\u1e47yaka, Upani\u1e63ad. Hai ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng c\u00e1c nghi th\u1ee9c t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, m\u1ec7nh danh l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>karma-kanda<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 \u201cnghi\u1ec7p ki\u1ec1n-\u0111\u1ed9\u201d hay nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u1ea1o. Hai ph\u1ea7n sau lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 Brahman v\u00e0 \u0101tman, ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng ph\u1ea7n tri th\u1ee9c, m\u1ec7nh danh l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>j\u00f1\u0101na-kanda<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 \u201ctr\u00ed ki\u1ec1n-\u0111\u1ed9\u201d hay tr\u00ed \u0111\u1ea1o. H\u1ec7 ph\u00e1i ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 P\u016brva-M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 (Ti\u1ec1n Di-man-t\u00e1t), nh\u01b0ng th\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u1ec9 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101. H\u1ec7 ph\u00e1i ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng ph\u1ea7n sau \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Uttara-M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 (H\u1eadu Di-man-t\u00e1t), nh\u01b0ng th\u01b0\u1eddng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Ved\u0101nta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 v\u00e0 Ved\u0101nta tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh hai h\u00f2n \u0111\u00e1 t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o, tr\u00ean \u0111\u00f3 ph\u00e1t sinh nhi\u1ec1u chi nh\u00e1nh nhi\u1ec1u khi ngh\u1ecbch nhau. Ved\u0101nta \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c v\u00e0 lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p. Hai khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u cho hai h\u1ec7 n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Kum\u0101rila v\u00e0 \u015aa\u1e45kara. C\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o t\u00e1n d\u01b0\u01a1ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng tri\u1ebft gia v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 ri\u00eang \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 m\u00e0 to\u00e0n th\u1ec3 nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, v\u00ec ch\u00ednh hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 lo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o ra kh\u1ecfi \u0111\u1ea5t \u1ea4n. Trong \u0111\u00f3, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u015aa\u1e45kara tr\u00f9m l\u00ean Kum\u0101rila, nh\u01b0ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1ecdn s\u1eb5n \u0111\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 ph\u00e1t \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1edfi Kum\u0101rila.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o Veda truy\u1ec1n cho \u0111\u1ebfn Kum\u0101rila v\u1eabn l\u00e0 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c, kh\u00f4ng nh\u01b0 Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o bao g\u1ed3m ch\u00fang \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed t\u1ea1i gia v\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t gia. Ch\u00ednh \u015aa\u1e45kara l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u00f3 t\u1eadp \u0111o\u00e0n t\u0103ng l\u1eef (xu\u1ea5t gia) m\u1ec7nh danh l\u00e0 sa\u1e43nyasa (tho\u00e1t ly).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u015aa\u1e45kara c\u0169ng b\u00e0i b\u00e1c Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o k\u1ecbch li\u1ec7t nh\u01b0 Kum\u0101rila, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng v\u1eabn b\u1ecb m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 trong Ved\u0101nta c\u00f4ng k\u00edch th\u1eadm t\u1ec7, cho l\u00e0 \u201ct\u00ean Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o tr\u00e1 h\u00ecnh\u201d (<em>bauddha-pracchanna<\/em>). Tuy c\u00f4ng k\u00edch Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft n\u1ebfu thay \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1eeb ng\u1eef th\u00ec d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng khi\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 c\u1ea3m t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e0 Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o. Th\u1eadt s\u1ef1, \u015aa\u1e45kara ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Trung qu\u00e1n v\u00e0 Duy th\u1ee9c qu\u00e1 \u0111\u1eadm, d\u00f9ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a hai tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i \u0110\u1ea1i th\u1eeba n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 lu\u1eadn gi\u1ea3i Upanishad. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp h\u1ecdc t\u1eeb hai ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y, m\u00e0 t\u1eeb th\u1ea7y truy\u1ec1n l\u00e0 Govinda, v\u00e0 Govinda l\u00e0 m\u00f4n \u0111\u1ec7 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a Gau\u1e0dapada. Ch\u00ednh Gau\u1e0dapa m\u1edbi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Trung qu\u00e1n r\u1ea5t \u0111\u1eadm.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ec3 \u015aa\u1e45kara b\u1ecb c\u00f4ng k\u00edch l\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng b\u1ea5t nh\u1ecb (<em>advaita<\/em>) v\u1edbi n\u1ed9i dung Ph\u1ea1m-Ng\u00e3 nh\u1ea5t th\u1ec3. Brahman v\u00e0 \u0101tman l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t, nh\u01b0ng trong khi b\u1ecb v\u00f4 minh che l\u1ea5p n\u00ean \u0101tman b\u1ecb t\u00e1ch r\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi b\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 Brahman m\u00e0 ch\u1ecbu tr\u1ea7m lu\u00e2n trong th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 huy\u1ec5n (<em>m\u0101y\u0101<\/em>). M\u1ed9t khi \u0101tman lo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb v\u00f4 minh, tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 huy\u1ec5n, tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 v\u1edbi \u0110\u1ea1i Ng\u00e3, b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd \u0101tman v\u00e0 Brahman l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o nh\u1ea5t th\u1ea7n (monism). Brahman l\u00e0 Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ed9c nh\u1ea5t. Ta thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 Ng\u00e0i, m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n trong ph\u1ea9m t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a Ng\u00e0i. Nh\u01b0ng ta kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1edbi Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. N\u00f3i th\u1ebf ch\u1eb3ng kh\u00e1c n\u00e0o ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1o Ph\u1eadt n\u00f3i: t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 ch\u00fang sanh \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 Ph\u1eadt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ebfn, n\u00f3i th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi n\u00e0y l\u00e0 nh\u01b0 huy\u1ec5n (<em>m\u0101y\u0101<\/em>), \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, nh\u1eafm xem t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c, Nh\u01b0ng th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o b\u1edfi ch\u00ednh Brahman. B\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 Brahman l\u00e0 th\u1ef1c h\u1eefu, v\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi m\u00e0 Ng\u00e0i t\u1ea1o ra t\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean c\u0169ng th\u1ef1c.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00f2n nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u1eefa, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 tr\u1ecdng t\u00e2m v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ea5y, kh\u1edfi th\u1ee7y, M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 ch\u1ec9 n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u00f4 ki\u1ebfn ph\u00e1t sinh t\u1eeb h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 v\u00e0 ti\u1ec1m t\u1ea1i n\u01a1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ec3 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng d\u1eabn n\u00f3 sinh thi\u00ean, v\u00e0 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u v\u1edbi t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t thi\u1ec7n. V\u1ec1 sau, \u00fd ngh\u0129a&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng cho h\u00e0nh vi x\u1ea5u, \u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p, v\u00e0 n\u00f3 ti\u1ec1m t\u1ea1i n\u01a1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1eabn n\u00f3 t\u00e1i sinh v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng n\u01a1i x\u1ea5u. T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y l\u00e0 di\u1ec5n ti\u1ebfn t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 can thi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n linh hay Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u015aa\u1e45kara ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y. Ch\u00fa gi\u1ea3i&nbsp;<em>Brahmas\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;c\u00e2u kinh III.2.38[29], \u015aa\u1e45kara ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101; ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y cho r\u1eb1ng nghi\u1ec7p t\u1ef1 n\u00f3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 trong t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 can thi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa \u012a\u015bvara. Theo \u015aa\u1e45kara, nghi\u1ec7p l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi ph\u00e1t sinh r\u1ed3i di\u1ec7t trong tho\u00e1ng ch\u1ed1c, v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;nh\u01b0 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 n\u00f3i th\u00ec v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u00f4 t\u00e2m (<em>acetan\u0101<\/em>), t\u1ef1 n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 l\u00e2u d\u00e0i v\u1ec1 sau. Cho n\u00ean, \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u1ee3p l\u00fd ph\u1ea3i n\u00f3i l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u1ec1u do \u012a\u015bvara. Ch\u00ednh&nbsp; \u012a\u015bvara l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5ng ph\u00e1n x\u00e9t thi\u1ec7n \u00e1c v\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ea1t. Bhagavadg\u012bta n\u00f3i, \u201cAi mu\u1ed1n th\u1edd ph\u1ee5ng th\u1ea7n linh n\u00e0o b\u1eb1ng t\u00edn t\u00e2m, Ta s\u1ebd l\u00e0m cho t\u00edn t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng dao \u0111\u1ed9ng.\u201d[30]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Brahmas\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;IV.1.13-14[31]&nbsp;n\u00f3i, khi \u0111\u00e3 th\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t b\u1ea3n t\u00ednh Brahman, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 t\u1ed9i l\u1ed7i tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb di\u1ec7t v\u00e0 t\u1ed9i sau n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111o\u1ea1n tuy\u1ec7t; v\u00e0 c\u1ea3 nghi\u1ec7p thi\u1ec7n c\u0169ng v\u1eady, sau khi x\u1ea3 b\u1ecf th\u00e2n n\u00e0y; ngh\u0129a l\u00e0, hi\u1ec7n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>j\u012bvamukti<\/em>), \u0111o\u1ea1n tuy\u1ec7t c\u1ea3 hai.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00e2u kinh n\u00e0y l\u00e0 t\u00edn l\u00fd c\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a Ved\u0101nta, v\u00e0 c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3 \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o v\u1ec1 sau, v\u1ec1 \u00fd ngh\u0129a di\u1ec7t nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ng\u00e0y nay n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn Upani\u1e63ad, Ved\u0101nta, hay n\u00f3i chung l\u00e0 \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>mok\u1e63a<\/em>); th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, trong Veda, kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm \u0111\u00e2u th\u1ea5y r\u00f5 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u sau n\u00e0y. M\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1eddi ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong Veda, s\u1ed1ng hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i l\u00e0 h\u01b0\u1edfng d\u1ee5c (<em>k\u0101ma<\/em>) v\u00e0 t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n (<em>artha<\/em>); sau khi ch\u1ebft sinh thi\u00ean. M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ea7u, t\u1eeb Jaimini, trung th\u00e0nh v\u1edbi c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a Veda, xem t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ec3 sinh thi\u00ean l\u00e0 ph\u1eadn s\u1ef1 v\u00e0 m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh. V\u1ec1 sau, cho \u0111\u1ebfn Kum\u0101rila, b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u l\u01b0u \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. Nh\u01b0ng gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n tr\u1ea7m lu\u00e2n sinh t\u1eed v\u00e0 sinh thi\u00ean \u0111\u1ec3 v\u0129nh vi\u1ec5n h\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ee5 d\u1ee5c l\u1ea1c \u1edf \u0111\u00f3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ch\u1ec9 trong c\u00e1c Upani\u1e63ad m\u1edbi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y kh\u00e1i mi\u1ec7m gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. \u00dd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u sau n\u00e0y li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng nghi\u1ec7p qu\u1ea3 v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i; c\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00e1 m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 ngay c\u1ea3 trong c\u00e1c Upanishad. G\u00e1n nh\u1eefng kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m n\u00e0y v\u00e0o Veda v\u00e0 Upanishad ch\u1ec9 do c\u00e1c th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 sau n\u00e0y. Cho n\u00ean, Halbfass ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u kh\u00e1 l\u1ea1 l\u00f9ng: \u201cL\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0, v\u00e0 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n l\u00e0, phong c\u00e1ch t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9.\u201d[32]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u1edbm nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian ng\u1eafn t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 s\u1edbm nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng sau Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o th\u1eddi A-d\u1ee5c, ho\u1eb7c t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>Brahmas\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;tr\u1edf \u0111i, kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t m\u1edbi ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o c\u00e1c Upanishad c\u00f9ng l\u00fac v\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft B\u1ea5t nh\u1ecb (<em>advaita<\/em>), Ph\u1ea1m-Ng\u00e3 nh\u1ea5t th\u1ec3, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y \u1edf c\u00e2u kinh trong s\u1edb gi\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a \u015aa\u1e45kara \u0111ang \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp. Trong c\u00e1c c\u00e2u kinh \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn (BS. III.2.38, 41)[33], hai kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m ch\u00ednh v\u1ec1 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00e1m ch\u1ec9:&nbsp;<em>j<\/em><em>\u012b<\/em><em>vanmukti<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 hi\u1ec7n th\u00e2n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t, v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>dehamukti<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 h\u1eadu th\u00e2n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. Nh\u01b0ng r\u00f5 nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u00e2u kinh BS. iv 1.13, 14, 15. C\u00e2u kinh iv.1.13 n\u00f3i, do th\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t Brahman m\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 ti\u00eau di\u1ec7t, nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng lai x\u1ea3 ly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u1ede \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 ba lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p: (1) nghi\u1ec7p t\u00edch t\u1eadp (<em>sa\u00f1cita-karma<\/em>), nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh vi thi\u1ec7n hay \u00e1c trong c\u00e1c \u0111\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00edch l\u0169y \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1edd cho k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3; (2) nghi\u1ec7p ch\u00e1nh ph\u00e1t (<em>pr\u0101rabdha-karma<\/em>), nghi\u1ec7p t\u00edch l\u0169y \u0111ang h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 trong \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y; v\u00e0 (3) nghi\u1ec7p v\u1ecb lai (<em>\u0101gama-karma<\/em>), c\u0169ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p ch\u00e1nh t\u00e1c (<em>kriyam\u0101na-karma<\/em>), nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh vi thi\u1ec7n \u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m trong \u0111\u1eddi hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gom chung v\u00e0o nghi\u1ec7p t\u00edch t\u1eadp \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1edd cho k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 trong c\u00e1c \u0111\u1eddi sau.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t Brahman (Brham\u0101dhigama), th\u1ea5u hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea3n t\u00ednh Brahman, l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t trong l\u00fac c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng, g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n th\u00e2n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>j<\/em><em>\u012b<\/em><em>vanmukti<\/em>). \u0110\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t nh\u01b0 v\u1eady l\u00e0 b\u1eadc ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed (<em>j\u00f1\u0101ni<\/em>), thu\u1ed9c h\u00e0ng Th\u00e1nh gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a Ved\u0101nta, t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi Arhan trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o. V\u1edbi hi\u1ec7n th\u00e2n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t, h\u1ebft th\u1ea3y nghi\u1ec7p t\u00edch t\u1eadp \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb di\u1ec7t tr\u1eeb, v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p v\u1ecb lai c\u0169ng b\u1ecb ng\u0103n ch\u1eb7n. S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i c\u00e2u kinh iv.1.15 n\u00f3i, c\u00f3 hai \u00fd ki\u1ebfn v\u1ec1 di\u1ec7t nghi\u1ec7p. M\u1ed9t \u00fd ki\u1ebfn cho r\u1eb1ng khi v\u1ecb \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nghi\u1ec7p, t\u00edch t\u1eadp c\u0169ng&nbsp; nh\u01b0 ch\u00e1nh ph\u00e1t, \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb di\u1ec7t s\u1ea1ch.&nbsp;<em>Brahmas\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn \u00fd ki\u1ebfn n\u00e0y. Theo \u0111\u00e2y, v\u1ecb ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed v\u1edbi hi\u1ec7n th\u00e2n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t ch\u1ec9 di\u1ec7t nghi\u1ec7p t\u00edch t\u1eadp. Nghi\u1ec7p ch\u00e1nh ph\u00e1t ch\u1ec9 di\u1ec7t khi n\u00e0o h\u1ebft t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng; ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed kh\u00f4ng ng\u0103n c\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. Khi nghi\u1ec7p n\u00e0y c\u1ea1n, th\u00e2n n\u00e0y b\u1ecb x\u1ea3 b\u1ecf, ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed \u0111\u1ea1t h\u1eadu th\u00e2n gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>dehamukti<\/em>) t\u1ee9c gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t sau khi ch\u1ebft.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i c\u0169ng n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng, v\u1edbi nghi\u1ec7p t\u00edch l\u0169y (<em>sa\u00f1cita-karma<\/em>) c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ecdng n\u01a1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed, sau khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea5y ch\u1ebft, n\u1ebfu l\u00e0 thi\u1ec7n s\u1ebd truy\u1ec1n l\u1ea1i cho con ch\u00e1u h\u01b0\u1edfng; n\u1ebfu l\u00e0 \u00e1c, s\u1ebd truy\u1ec1n l\u1ea1i cho k\u1ebb th\u00f9 \u0111\u1ec3 n\u00f3 ch\u1ecbu qu\u1ea3 b\u00e1o thay (!). \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh vi thi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng thu\u1ed9c nghi\u1ec7p th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00e0nh (<em>nityakarma<\/em>) nh\u01b0 l\u1ec5 c\u00fang t\u1ebf th\u1ea7n L\u1eeda (<em>agnihotra<\/em>: h\u1ecfa c\u00fang, hay h\u1ecfa t\u1ebf).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u015aa\u1e45kara c\u0169ng l\u01b0u \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng h\u1ed1i t\u1ed9i (<em>pr\u0101ya\u015bcitta<\/em>: h\u1ed1i t\u00e2m) trong m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn b\u1edfi \u015aa\u1e45kara trong \u0111o\u1ea1n s\u1edb gi\u1ea3i c\u00e2u kinh iii.1.8: \u201cTh\u1eadt v\u1eady, ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb do c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n h\u1ed1i t\u00e2m, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nghi\u1ec7p n\u00e0o b\u1ecb \u0111o\u1ea1n tuy\u1ec7t.\u201d[34]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">M\u1eb7c d\u00f9&nbsp;<em>pr\u0101ya\u015bcitta<\/em>&nbsp;(h\u1ed1i t\u00e2m) kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh; nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ch\u1ee9ng tr\u00ed n\u00e0o ph\u00e1t sinh v\u1edbi t\u00e2m kh\u00f4ng thanh t\u1ecbnh.&nbsp;<em>Pr\u0101ya\u015bcitta<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 tha th\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf \u0111\u1ec3 g\u1ed9t cho t\u00e2m thanh t\u1ecbnh. Nh\u01b0 Srimad Bhagavatam VI.1.9 n\u00f3i: \u201cNg\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00f9 th\u1ea5y v\u00e0 nghe, bi\u1ebft t\u1ed9i \u00e1c nguy h\u1ea1i cho m\u00ecnh, m\u00e0 v\u1eabn c\u1ed1 l\u00e0m, th\u1ebf th\u00ec h\u1ed1i t\u00e2m c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a g\u00ec?\u201d[35]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, trong \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1eadt,&nbsp;<em>pr\u0101ya\u015bcitta<\/em>&nbsp;kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu v\u00ec ph\u1ea1m t\u1ed9i l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00f3 tr\u00e1nh. T\u00edn \u0111\u1ed3 c\u1ee7a h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1ec1u t\u1ef1 c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc nh\u1eefng c\u00e1m d\u1ed7 hay b\u1ecb chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi v\u00f4 minh, ngu d\u1ed1t, khi\u1ebfn d\u1ec5 c\u00f3 h\u00e0nh vi sai qu\u1ea5y, do \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 tha th\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. Lu\u1eadt \u0111i\u1ec3n Dharma\u015b\u0101stra c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng quy \u0111\u1ecbnh kh\u00e1 chi ti\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n n\u00e0y, t\u00f9y theo m\u1ee9c t\u1ed9i v\u00e0 t\u00f9y theo giai c\u1ea5p. C\u00e1c&nbsp;<em>pr\u0101ya\u015bcitta<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh vi nh\u01b0 c\u1ea1o tr\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea7u, t\u1eafm b\u00f9n, t\u1eafm ph\u00e2n b\u00f2, hay n\u01b0\u1edbc th\u00e1nh.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Pr\u0101ya\u015bcitta \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n trong \u00e2n hu\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf do b\u1edfi l\u00f2ng nh\u00e2n t\u1eeb ban ph\u00e1t cho k\u1ebb bi\u1ebft h\u1ed1i l\u1ed7i. Nh\u01b0ng tr\u00ean t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3, ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n di\u1ec7t t\u1ed9i n\u00e0y l\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 s\u00f9ng k\u00ednh Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a n\u00f3i v\u1edbi Arjuna: \u201cAi nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c r\u1eb1ng Ta l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5ng V\u00f4 sanh (<em>aja<\/em>), \u0111\u1ea5ng V\u00f4 th\u1ee7y (<em>an\u0101di<\/em>), l\u00e0 Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa Cao c\u1ea3 (Mahe\u015bvara: \u0110\u1ea1i T\u1ef1 T\u1ea1i thi\u00ean) c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gian, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng ngu si gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng ph\u00e0m phu ngu mu\u1ed9i; n\u00f3 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi t\u1ed9i l\u1ed7i.\u201d[36]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u00f9ng k\u00ednh (<em>bhakti<\/em>), tr\u00ed (<em>j\u00f1\u0101ni<\/em>) v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p (<em>karma<\/em>) l\u00e0 ba con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng v\u1edbi Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t; l\u00e0 ba b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a Bhagavadg\u012bta. B\u1eb1ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng nghi\u1ec7p (<em>karma-yoga<\/em>): th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c ph\u1eadn s\u1ef1 theo giai c\u1ea5p, tinh c\u1ea7n tu \u0111\u1ea1o, chi\u00eam b\u00e1i Th\u00e1nh t\u00edch, b\u1ed1 th\u00ed v\u00e0 t\u1ebf t\u1ef1; b\u1eb1ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng tr\u00ed (<em>j\u00f1\u0101na-yoga<\/em>): t\u1ef1 ti\u1ebft ch\u1ebf, l\u00f3ng s\u1ea1ch t\u00e2m tr\u00ed; b\u1eb1ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng k\u00ednh t\u00edn (<em>bhakti-yoga<\/em>): t\u01b0 duy qu\u00e1n t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u00f9ng k\u00ednh l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ee9c tin tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i n\u01a1i Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, t\u1eadp trung ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u00fd th\u1ee9c n\u01a1i Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, chuy\u00ean t\u00e2m nh\u1ea5t tr\u00ed v\u00e0o Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, v\u00e0 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady c\u01b0 ng\u1ee5 ngay trong Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. Nh\u01b0ng l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i d\u1ec5. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf, K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a ch\u1ec9 d\u1eabn, h\u00e3y \u0111i theo con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00e0nh s\u1ef1 (<em>abhy\u0101sa<\/em>), \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng mong c\u1ea7u k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3. H\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng kh\u00f4ng mong c\u1ea7u k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3, hay nghi\u1ec7p v\u00f4 c\u1ea7u, l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ed1t y\u1ebfu trong tri\u1ebft l\u00fd h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, hay thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd nghi\u1ec7p, c\u1ee7a Bhagavadg\u012bta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong \u0111\u00f3, con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng kh\u00f3 nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 tr\u00ed. K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a n\u00f3i v\u1edbi Arjuna: \u201cTr\u00ed (<em>j\u00f1\u0101na<\/em>) cao h\u01a1n h\u00e0nh (<em>abhy\u0101sa<\/em>). Thi\u1ec1n (<em>dhy\u0101na<\/em>) thi\u1ebft th\u1ef1c h\u01a1n tr\u00ed. X\u1ea3 ly nghi\u1ec7p qu\u1ea3 (<em>karmaphala-ty\u0101ga<\/em>) th\u00f9 th\u1eafng h\u01a1n thi\u1ec1n. Do x\u1ea3 m\u00e0 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1ecbch t\u0129nh (<em>\u015b\u0101nti<\/em>).\u201d \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 tu\u1ea7n t\u1ef1 tu t\u1eadp \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. B\u1eb1ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng x\u1ea3, v\u00f4 c\u1ea7u m\u00e0 t\u00e2m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ecbch t\u0129nh. Do t\u00e2m t\u1ecbch t\u0129nh m\u00e0 t\u1eadp thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec3 chi\u00eam quan Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf; do s\u1ef1 chi\u00eam quan n\u00e0y m\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 v\u1ec1 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. Theo v\u0103n th\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, nh\u01b0ng \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t. \u015aa\u1e45kara \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00ed l\u00ean h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u. R\u0101m\u0101nuja xem tr\u1ecdng t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng nghi\u1ec7p, th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh c\u00e1c ph\u1eadn s\u1ef1 th\u01b0\u1eddng quy (<em>nitya-karma<\/em>) hay t\u00f9y th\u1eddi (<em>naimittika<\/em>), nh\u01b0ng tr\u00ean h\u1ebft l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng d\u00e2ng hi\u1ebfn v\u00ec Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 s\u00f9ng k\u00ednh tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u0110i\u1ec3m n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt nh\u1ea5t trong tri\u1ebft l\u00fd h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng hay thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a Bhagavadg\u012bta l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a anh h\u00f9ng, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u l\u00e0 Arjuna, t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y r\u1ee7n ch\u00ed ngay tr\u01b0\u1edbc gi\u00e2y ph\u00fat l\u00e2m tr\u1eadn: \u201cSao ta l\u1ea1i ph\u1ea3i gi\u1ebft anh em m\u00ecnh, v\u00ec vinh quang chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng, v\u00ec v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c, hay v\u00ec d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng?\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Tr\u00ean chi\u1ebfn tr\u01b0\u1eddng Kuru, nh\u00ecn t\u1eeb l\u1ecbch s\u1eed hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c trong th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn huynh \u0111\u1ec7 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e0n c\u1ee7a anh em ru\u1ed9t th\u1ecbt trong m\u1ed9t v\u01b0\u01a1ng tri\u1ec1u. Cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e2ng l\u00ean h\u00e0ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, cho n\u00ean tr\u01b0\u1eddng Kuru (Kuru-k\u1e63etra) tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1eddng ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 (dharma-k\u1e63etra). K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a, Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf h\u00f3a th\u00e2n l\u00e0m ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e1nh xe, khi\u1ec3n tr\u00e1ch th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 b\u1ea5t x\u1ee9ng c\u1ee7a Arjuna; v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00edch l\u1ec7 tinh th\u1ea7n chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u, K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e2n t\u00edch ch\u00ednh ngh\u0129a hay phi ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn huynh \u0111\u1ec7 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e0n n\u00e0y, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi chi\u1ebfn s\u1ef9; ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 \u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy \u0111\u1ecbnh b\u1edfi ch\u00ednh Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ch\u00fa gi\u1ea3i kh\u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng Arjuna ph\u00e2n v\u00e2n v\u00ec cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn phi ngh\u0129a, m\u00e0 v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ednh b\u1ea5t di\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a T\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 \u0101tman v\u00e0 th\u00e2n x\u00e1c h\u1ee7y ho\u1ea1i n\u00e0y. K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a b\u1ea3o Arjuna: \u201cTa, v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u01a1i, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh n\u00e0y, \u0111\u00e3, \u0111ang v\u00e0 s\u1ebd th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Th\u00e2n x\u00e1c n\u00e0y r\u1ed3i gi\u00e0, r\u1ed3i ch\u1ebft, v\u00e0 r\u1ed3i t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 \u0101tman s\u1ebd chuy\u1ec3n sang th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 kh\u00e1c. C\u00e1c tr\u00ed gi\u1ea3 kh\u00f4ng m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y.\u201d[37]&nbsp;N\u00f3i c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c, trong ch\u00e2n l\u00fd tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 k\u1ebb gi\u1ebft c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 k\u1ebb b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 t\u00edn l\u00fd c\u1ee7a h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. Hai nguy\u00ean l\u00fd c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i Brahman v\u00e0 \u0101tman, th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng, b\u1ea5t di\u1ec7t. T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 ch\u1ebft, v\u00e0 ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5. Trong to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 n\u1ed9i dung Bhagavadg\u012bta, h\u00f3a th\u00e2n Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf K\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47a di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 y\u00eau qu\u00fd c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 Arjuna v\u1ec1 \u00fd ngh\u0129a tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 v\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng b\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng (<em>j\u00f1\u0101na-yoga<\/em>) v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng (<em>karma-yoga<\/em>). B\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 m\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c b\u1ea3n t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a \u0101tman v\u00e0 Brahman \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. B\u1eb1ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o, c\u0169ng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t. C\u00e1i n\u00e0o ch\u00ednh hay ph\u1ee5, hay c\u1ea3 hai h\u1ed7 t\u01b0\u01a1ng, t\u00f9y theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i v\u00e0 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng. Trong li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y, ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh trong t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng nghi\u1ec7p.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u201cH\u00e3y l\u00e0m trong ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng, n\u00e0y Arjuna, d\u1eb9p b\u1ecf tham tr\u01b0\u1edbc n\u01a1i c\u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. Th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng hay th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec1u b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng. \u0110\u00f3 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng t\u00ednh.\u201d[38]&nbsp;\u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 n\u1ed9i dung c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd nghi\u1ec7p nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a Bhagavadg\u012bta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1eady, theo \u0111\u00e2y, nghi\u1ec7p l\u00e0 g\u00ec? Kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n Veda quy \u0111\u1ecbnh ba lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p, c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i gi\u00e1c tri: nghi\u1ec7p (<em>karma<\/em>), h\u00e0nh vi ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh theo nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n quy \u0111\u1ecbnh; phi nghi\u1ec7p (<em>akarma<\/em>), nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh vi b\u1ea5t ch\u00ednh m\u00e0 kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ea5m ch\u1ec9; v\u00e0 v\u00f4 nghi\u1ec7p (<em>akarma<\/em>). Trong \u0111\u00f3, v\u00f4 nghi\u1ec7p h\u00e0m \u00fd th\u00fa \u1ea9n \u00e1o, kh\u00f3 th\u1ea5y kh\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u; l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi l\u00e0m m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m, kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m m\u00e0 l\u00e0m t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3. H\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1edbi t\u00e2m v\u00f4 ch\u1ea5p, v\u00f4 c\u1ea7u, v\u00ec bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng k\u1ebb h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3, v\u00e0 m\u1ecdi h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ec1u do Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf v\u00e0 d\u00e2ng hi\u1ebfn cho Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. \u201cAi th\u1ea5y nghi\u1ec7p trong v\u00f4 nghi\u1ec7p, v\u00f4 nghi\u1ec7p trong nghi\u1ec7p, \u1ea5y l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e1c ng\u1ed9 gi\u1eefa lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u01b0ng, l\u00e0 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p bi\u1ebfn m\u00e3n.\u201d[39]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nghi\u1ec7p ch\u00e2n ch\u00e1nh&nbsp; c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n g\u1ed3m ba h\u1ea1ng m\u1ee5c: (a) Nghi\u1ec7p th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00e0nh (<em>nitya-karma<\/em>), nh\u1eefng ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean, nh\u01b0 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf th\u1ea7n linh, t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean v\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n qu\u00e1 v\u00e3ng, t\u1eafm n\u01b0\u1edbc th\u00e1nh s\u00f4ng H\u1eb1ng.v.v. (b) Nghi\u1ec7p t\u00f9y th\u1eddi (<em>naimittika-karma<\/em>), ngh\u0129a v\u1ee5 b\u1ea5t th\u01b0\u1eddng, trong nh\u1eefng tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t, nh\u01b0 ch\u0103m s\u00f3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ed1m, c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n cho linh h\u1ed3n ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft, ho\u1eb7c t\u1eafm s\u00f4ng khi c\u00f3 nh\u1eadt hay nguy\u1ec7t th\u1ef1c. (c) Nghi\u1ec7p t\u00f9y \u00e1i (<em>k\u0101mya-karma<\/em>), h\u00e0nh vi v\u1edbi m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch mong c\u1ea7u, nh\u01b0 con c\u00e1i, t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nh\u00ecn t\u1eeb bi\u1ec3u di\u1ec7n, nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng li\u00ean h\u1ec7 g\u00ec \u0111\u1ebfn \u00fd ngh\u0129a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u trong c\u00e1c Kinh Lu\u1eadn Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o. B\u1edfi v\u00ec, nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh vi mang t\u00ednh thi\u1ec7n \u00e1c, h\u1eefu \u00edch hay g\u00e2y h\u1ea1i cho m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1eddi sau, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng \u00fd ch\u00ed t\u1ef1 do, b\u1eb1ng quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh ch\u00fang sinh, kh\u00f4ng m\u1ed9t quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c ngo\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i hay t\u1ed1i cao n\u00e0o ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ecbnh. C\u01a1 s\u1edf tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a thuy\u1ebft nghi\u1ec7p n\u00e0y l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1eb1ng sau m\u1ecdi h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea5ng Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ec3 ng\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb tr\u00ean cao gi\u00e1m s\u00e1t m\u1ecdi h\u00e0nh vi v\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ea1t. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, g\u1ea1t ra ngo\u00e0i t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 sai bi\u1ec7t ng\u1eef ph\u00e1p, c\u00f3 v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng, t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i hay kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, nghi\u1ec7p v\u1eabn h\u00e0m \u00fd ngh\u0129a chung, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 h\u00e0nh vi n\u00e0o nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 ho\u1eb7c h\u1eefu \u00edch, ho\u1eb7c t\u1ed5n h\u1ea1i, cho m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi, trong \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eddi sau, h\u00e0nh vi \u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p. \u0110i\u1ec3m kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 trong Bhagavadg\u012bta nghi\u1ec7p tr\u00ean ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n b\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean l\u00fd c\u1ee7a t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i n\u00f3 l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean l\u00fd h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. \u00dd ngh\u0129a c\u1ed1t y\u1ebfu ph\u00e1t xu\u1ea5t t\u1eeb nghi\u1ec7p nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Veda nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y trong P\u016brva-M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ch\u00fang ta d\u1eabn th\u00eam m\u1ed9t \u00edt t\u1ee5ng v\u0103n t\u1eeb Bhagavadg\u012bta \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c kh\u00e1i qu\u00e1t v\u1ec1 di\u1ec5n ti\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a n\u1ed9i dung v\u00e0 t\u1eeb ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">G\u012bta iii. 14-15: \u201cC\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i h\u1eefu sinh xu\u1ea5t sinh t\u1eeb th\u1ef1c ph\u1ea9m. Th\u1ef1c ph\u1ea9m ph\u00e1t sinh t\u1eeb m\u01b0a. M\u01b0a ph\u00e1t sinh t\u1eeb t\u1ebf t\u1ef1. T\u1ebf t\u1ef1 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t sinh c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p. N\u00ean bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng, nghi\u1ec7p xu\u1ea5t sinh t\u1eeb Brahman. Brahman l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t sinh t\u1eeb B\u1ea5t ho\u1ea1i. Cho n\u00ean, Brahman l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5ng Bi\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh, th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng an tr\u00fa trong t\u1ebf t\u1ef1.\u201d[40]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ak\u1e63ara trong b\u00e0i t\u1ee5ng n\u00e0y ch\u1ec9 cho b\u1ea3n t\u00ednh kh\u00f4ng h\u1ee7y di\u1ec7t, kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a Brahman, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 cho v\u0103n t\u1ef1, m\u1eabu \u00e2m, hay \u00e2m v\u1eadn, \u00e2m ti\u1ebft; \u0111\u1ea5y l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean ng\u00f4n c\u1ee7a Veda, b\u1ea5t di\u1ec7t. Nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1. \u015aa\u1e45kara gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch t\u1ebf t\u1ef1 n\u00f3i \u0111\u00e2y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 l\u00e0m ph\u00e1t sinh y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1&nbsp;<em>ap\u016brva<\/em>&nbsp;nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i trong M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101. Nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, m\u00e0 bao tr\u00f9m t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 m\u1ecdi hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng; kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i n\u00e0o, h\u1eefu h\u00ecnh hay v\u00f4 h\u00ecnh m\u00e0 b\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed9ng. Hoa r\u01a1i, l\u00e1 r\u1ee5ng, c\u00e1t bay, \u0111\u00e1 ch\u1ea1y, cho \u0111\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh vi thi\u1ec7n \u00e1c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, th\u1ea3y \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bao tr\u00f9m trong nghi\u1ec7p, ph\u00e1t xu\u1ea5t t\u1eeb th\u1ec3 t\u00ednh b\u1ea5t di\u1ec7t, b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Brahman, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n trong Veda. H\u00e0nh vi n\u00e0o ph\u1ea3n ngh\u1ecbch ph\u00e1n truy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Veda s\u1ebd ph\u1ea3i nh\u1eadn h\u00ecnh ph\u1ea1t.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e1ng l\u01b0u \u00fd trong hai b\u00e0i t\u1ee5ng n\u00e0y l\u00e0 n\u1ed9i dung g\u1ea7n gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u Ph\u1eadt n\u00f3i: \u201cH\u1ebft th\u1ea3y ch\u00fang sinh \u0111\u1ec1u n\u01b0\u01a1ng nh\u1edd th\u1ee9c \u0103n m\u00e0 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i.\u201d[41]&nbsp; \u00dd ngh\u0129a Ph\u1eadt n\u00f3i, h\u1ebft th\u1ea3y ch\u00fang sinh \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1ea7n d\u01b0\u1ee1ng ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 d\u01b0\u1ee1ng ch\u1ea5t, ch\u00fang ph\u1ea3i t\u1ea7m c\u1ea7u, chi\u1ebfm h\u1eefu. Do t\u1ea7m c\u1ea7u, chi\u1ebfm h\u1eefu m\u00e0 t\u1ea1o nghi\u1ec7p thi\u1ec7n ho\u1eb7c b\u1ea5t thi\u1ec7n, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn l\u01b0u chuy\u1ec3n sinh t\u1eed. Trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a G\u012bta, ngu\u1ed3n th\u1ef1c ph\u1ea9m ph\u00e1t xu\u1ea5t t\u1eeb t\u00ednh b\u1ea5t di\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u00e2n hu\u1ec7 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf ban ph\u00e1t cho m\u1ecdi lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ec3 duy tr\u00ec s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Cho n\u00ean, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nghi\u1ec7p hay h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i h\u01b0\u1edbng v\u1ec1 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. Cho n\u00ean, b\u00e0i t\u1ee5ng ti\u1ebfp theo G\u012bta (iii.16) n\u00f3i, k\u1ebb n\u00e0o kh\u00f4ng l\u0103n theo b\u00e1nh xe \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chuy\u1ec3n v\u1eadn nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf, n\u00f3 s\u1ed1ng cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi v\u00f4 \u00edch trong t\u1ed9i l\u1ed7i, bu\u00f4ng tr\u00f4i c\u00e1c c\u0103n theo d\u1ee5c l\u1ea1c.[42]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>II. L\u1ee4C S\u01af NGO\u1ea0I \u0110\u1ea0O<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn trong Th\u00e1nh \u0111i\u1ec3n nguy\u00ean th\u1ee7y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb trong nh\u00f3m g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cL\u1ee5c S\u01b0 ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o\u201d. Chi ti\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a s\u00e1u v\u1ecb t\u00f4ng s\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi Ph\u1eadt n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u trong kinh Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3.[43]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>1<\/strong><strong>. P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00f3,&nbsp;<strong>P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa<\/strong>&nbsp;(Ph\u00fa-lan-na Ca-di\u1ebfp) v\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft v\u00f4 t\u00e1c (<em>akriya-v\u0101da<\/em>) cho r\u1eb1ng m\u1ecdi h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ed9i \u00e1c ch\u1eb3ng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o g\u00ec: \u201c&#8230; \u0110i \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1edd nam s\u00f4ng H\u1eb1ng m\u00e0 gi\u1ebft, sai b\u1ea3o gi\u1ebft, c\u1eaft x\u1ebb, sai b\u1ea3o c\u1eaft x\u1ebb, lu\u1ed9c ch\u00edn, sai b\u1ea3o lu\u1ed9c ch\u00edn, kh\u00f4ng do nh\u00e2n duy\u00ean n\u00e0y m\u00e0 c\u00f3 t\u1ed9i \u00e1c; c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng v\u00ec v\u1eady m\u00e0 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a t\u1ed9i \u00e1c. \u0110i \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1edd b\u1eafc s\u00f4ng H\u1eb1ng b\u1ed1 th\u00ed, t\u1ebf t\u1ef1, kh\u00f4ng do nh\u00e2n duy\u00ean n\u00e0y c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u1edbc, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng v\u00ec v\u1eady m\u00e0 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u1edbc&#8230;\u201d[44]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u01a1i kh\u00e1c, trong&nbsp; kinh&nbsp;<em>Cha\u1e37abhij\u0101tisutta\u1e43<\/em>[45]\u0100nanda d\u1eabn ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i c\u00e1c \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p theo m\u00e0u s\u1eafc, trong \u0111\u00f3 th\u1ea5p nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 m\u00e0u \u0111en (<em>k\u0101\u1e47\u1e25\u0101bhij\u0101ti<\/em>), \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ed5 d\u00ea, m\u1ed5 heo, cho \u0111\u1ebfn cai ng\u1ee5c, v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ngh\u1ec1 t\u00e0n \u00e1c kh\u00e1c. Th\u1ee9 hai, \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p m\u00e0u lam (<em>n\u012bl\u0101bhij\u0101ti<\/em>) c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng t\u1ef3-kheo s\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi gai nh\u1ecdn (<em>ka\u1e47\u1e0dakavuttika-bhikkhu<\/em>). Th\u1ee9 ba, \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p m\u00e0u \u0111\u1ecf (<em>lohit\u0101bhij\u0101ti<\/em>) c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ni-ki\u1ec1n ch\u1ec9 kho\u00e1c m\u1ed9t y (<em>niga\u1e47\u1e6dh\u0101 ekas\u0101\u1e6dak\u0101<\/em>). Th\u1ee9 t\u01b0, \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p m\u00e0u v\u00e0ng ngh\u1ec7 (<em>halidd\u0101bhij\u0101ti<\/em>) c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed t\u1ea1i gia kho\u00e1c \u00e1o tr\u1eafng c\u1ee7a L\u00f5a h\u00ecnh ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o (<em>gih\u012b od\u0101tavasan\u0101 acelakas\u0101vak\u0101<\/em>). Th\u1ee9 n\u0103m, \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p m\u00e0u tr\u1eafng (<em>sukk\u0101bhij\u0101ti<\/em>) c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00f3m Ho\u1ea1t m\u1ea1ng nam v\u00e0 n\u1eef (<em>\u0101j\u012bvak\u0101 \u0101j\u012bvakiniyo<\/em>). Cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ee9 s\u00e1u m\u00e0u si\u00eau tr\u1eafng (<em>paramasukka<\/em>) l\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p cao nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb nh\u01b0 Nanda Vaccha, Sa\u1e45kicca v\u00e0 Makkhali Gosala. Nh\u01b0ng ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p n\u00e0y trong kinh Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Makkhali Gosala.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u00eam n\u1eefa, trong kinh&nbsp;<em>Mah\u0101li<\/em><em><strong>[46]<\/strong><\/em>, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Licchavi t\u00ean l\u00e0 Mah\u0101li n\u00f3i v\u1edbi Ph\u1eadt v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00f4 nh\u00e2n lu\u1eadn (<em>ahetuka-v\u0101da<\/em>) c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a, r\u1eb1ng \u201cKh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nh\u00e2n, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 duy\u00ean cho s\u1ef1 thanh t\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c ch\u00fang sinh&#8230;\u201d Ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u00e0y trong kinh Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a Makkhali nh\u01b0 s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Buddhaghosa, trong S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i P\u0101li,[47]&nbsp;gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch t\u00ean g\u1ecdi n\u00e0y v\u1edbi chi ti\u1ebft kh\u00e1 ly k\u1ef3. P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa sinh ra, con s\u1ed1 n\u00f4 l\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a gia \u0111\u00ecnh n\u1ecd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea7y 100,[48]&nbsp;do s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y t\u1ea5t c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. V\u00ec Kassapa (skt.) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ecd l\u1edbn thu\u1ed9c giai c\u1ea5p b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kinh&nbsp;<em>Lok\u0101yatikasutta\u1e43<\/em><em><strong>[49]<\/strong><\/em>&nbsp;t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n thu\u1ed9c nh\u00f3m Thu\u1eadn th\u1ebf (<em>lok\u0101yatik\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101<\/em>) k\u1ec3 v\u1edbi Ph\u1eadt r\u1eb1ng P\u016bra\u1e47a t\u1ef1 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 l\u00e0 v\u1ecb nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft tri, nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft ki\u1ebfn; \u00f4ng n\u00e0y n\u00f3i \u201cD\u00f9 khi ta \u0111i hay \u0111\u1ee9ng, th\u1ee9c hay ng\u1ee7, tri ki\u1ebfn lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n hi\u1ec7n ti\u1ec1n.\u201d C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 do tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 n\u00e0y m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 P\u016bra\u1e47a, theo ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cvi\u00ean m\u00e3n tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7\u201d? \u0110\u00e2y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e1ng tin l\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c cho t\u00ean g\u1ecdi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i c\u0169ng k\u1ec3 th\u00eam r\u1eb1ng, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1m c\u00e1t t\u01b0\u1eddng do \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 b\u1ecb khi\u1ec3n tr\u00e1ch ngay c\u1ea3 khi \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c. Nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng do \u0111\u00f3 b\u1ecf tr\u1ed1n. \u00d4ng b\u1ecb b\u1ecdn c\u01b0\u1edbp l\u1ed9t h\u1ebft y ph\u1ee5c; \u1ea5y th\u1ebf, \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m, m\u00e0 c\u1ee9 l\u00f5a th\u1ec3 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady \u0111i v\u00e0o th\u00f4n, d\u00e2n l\u00e0ng nh\u1ea7m t\u01b0\u1edfng \u00f4ng l\u00e0 v\u1ecb Th\u00e1nh thi\u1ec3u d\u1ee5c cho n\u00ean r\u1ea5t t\u00f4n s\u00f9ng, v\u00e0 d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n c\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi xu\u1ea5t gia theo, con s\u1ed1 l\u00ean \u0111\u1ebfn 500. Truy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 n\u00e0y mang t\u00ednh khinh th\u1ecb, kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng tin, nh\u01b0ng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n P\u016bra\u1e47a l\u00e0 v\u1ecb t\u00f4ng s\u01b0 danh ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t trong c\u00e1c nh\u00f3m l\u00f5a th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u0100j\u012bvika (Ho\u1ea1t m\u1ea1ng ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o), th\u00ec \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 nh\u00f3m \u0100j\u012bvika c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn. \u00d4ng c\u00f2n ch\u1ee7 tr\u00ec m\u1ed9t tu vi\u1ec7n l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng tu s\u0129 \u0100j\u012bvika \u1edf Kukka\u1e6danagara.[50]&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Barua gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00f4 t\u00e1c (<em>akriya-v\u0101da<\/em>) c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9ng hay b\u1ea5t ho\u1ea1t (<em>ni\u1e63kriya<\/em>) c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n hay t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3; l\u00e0m hay sai b\u1ea3o ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c l\u00e0m, \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i do b\u1edfi ch\u00ednh linh h\u1ed3n l\u00e0m hay khi\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c l\u00e0m. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y c\u0169ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 v\u1edbi Sa\u1e43khy\u0101 theo \u0111\u00f3&nbsp;<em>puru\u1e63a<\/em>, nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1 tinh th\u1ea7n, t\u1ee9c t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3, l\u00e0 b\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 h\u1eefu v\u00e0 b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn.[51]&nbsp;V\u00ec b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn, n\u00ean m\u1ecdi bi\u1ebfn h\u00f3a trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh chuy\u1ec3n bi\u1ebfn ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 \u1ea3nh t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>puru\u1e63a<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n b\u1edfi t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">P\u016bra\u1e47a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft l\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng t\u1ef1 k\u1ebft th\u00fac \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh trong m\u1ed9t ao sen. Bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt r\u1ea5t kh\u00e1 l\u00f4i cu\u1ed1n trong S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i Dhammapada, chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 v\u1ec1 c\u00e2u Ph\u00e1p c\u00fa 181.[52]&nbsp;Basham cho r\u1eb1ng chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng tin; nh\u01b0ng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n P\u016bra\u1e47a t\u1ef1 s\u00e1t th\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn; b\u1edfi v\u00ec t\u1ef1 s\u00e1t mang t\u00ednh t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u1ea5t th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ea5y trong c\u00e1c tu s\u0129 \u0100j\u012bvika khi h\u1ecd th\u1ea5y c\u00e1c c\u0103n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u tho\u00e1i h\u00f3a.[53]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong c\u00e1c kinh P\u0101li, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 trong c\u00e1c H\u00e1n d\u1ecbch t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng, c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa th\u01b0\u1eddng l\u1eabn l\u1ed9n v\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Makkhali Gos\u0101la.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>2. Makkhali Gos\u0101la<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Makkhali Gos\u0101la (skt. Maskar\u012b Go\u015b\u0101l\u012bputra, M\u1ea1t-gi\u00e0-l\u00ea-c\u00f9-x\u00e1-l\u1ee3i) v\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i t\u1ecbnh h\u00f3a (<em>sa\u1e43s\u0101rasuddhi-v\u0101da<\/em>), theo \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn kh\u1ed5 \u0111au c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi lo\u00e0i l\u00e0 qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, kh\u00f4ng do b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 h\u00e0nh vi hay nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o g\u00ec. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nh\u00e2n, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 duy\u00ean cho s\u1ef1 nhi\u1ec5m \u00f4 hay thanh t\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c lo\u00e0i h\u1eefu t\u00ecnh. Ta kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, c\u00e1i kh\u00e1c kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u00e1i g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 l\u1ef1c, l\u00e0 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c, n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. H\u1ebft th\u1ea3y ch\u00fang sinh, h\u1ebft th\u1ea3y m\u1ecdi sinh lo\u1ea1i, h\u1ebft th\u1ea3y m\u1ecdi sinh v\u1eadt, h\u1ebft th\u1ea3y lo\u00e0i c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 s\u1ed1ng, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7, b\u1ea5t l\u1ef1c, y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i; ch\u00fang l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1ee5 h\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh, b\u1ecb chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh, bi\u1ebfn chuy\u1ec3n theo \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh (<em>niyatisa\u1e45gatibh\u0101vapari\u1e47at\u0101<\/em>) m\u00e0 c\u1ea3m nghi\u1ec7m kh\u1ed5 hay l\u1ea1c trong s\u00e1u \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p ch\u1ee7ng lo\u1ea1i[54]; d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ea7u b\u1edfi 1 tri\u1ec7u b\u1ed1n tr\u0103m ngh\u00ecn lo\u1ea1i sinh th\u1ef1c kh\u00ed (<em>yoni<\/em>: sinh m\u00f4n), v\u00e0 th\u00eam s\u00e1u ngh\u00ecn v\u00e0 s\u00e1u tr\u0103m n\u1eefa. C\u00f3 500 lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p (<em>pa\u00f1ca kammuno sat\u0101ni<\/em>), v\u00e0 n\u0103m lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p (<em>pa\u00f1ca ca kamm\u0101ni<\/em>), ba lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p (<em>t\u012b\u1e47i ca kamm\u0101ni<\/em>), trong nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 trong n\u1eeda nghi\u1ec7p.[55]&nbsp;C\u00f3 62 \u0111\u1ea1o t\u00edch (<em>pa\u1e6dip\u0101da<\/em>); 62 trung ki\u1ebfp (<em>antarakappa<\/em>), 6 \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p ch\u1ee7ng lo\u1ea1i, 8 v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi[56]; 49 nh\u00f3m ho\u1ea1t m\u1ea1ng ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o (<em>\u0101j\u012bvaka<\/em>); 49 nh\u00f3m xu\u1ea5t gia ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o (<em>paribb\u0101jaka<\/em>); 49 tr\u00fa x\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a r\u1ed3ng (<em>n\u0101g\u0101v\u0101sa<\/em>); 2 ngh\u00ecn quan n\u0103ng (<em>indriya<\/em>: c\u0103n), ba ngh\u00ecn \u0111\u1ecba ng\u1ee5c; 36 vi tr\u1ea7n gi\u1edbi (<em>rajodh\u0101tu<\/em>); 7 lo\u1ea1i thai b\u00e0o h\u1eefu t\u01b0\u1edfng (<em>sa\u00f1\u00f1\u012bgabbha<\/em>); 7 lo\u1ea1i thai b\u00e0o v\u00f4 t\u01b0\u1edfng (<em>asa\u00f1\u00f1\u012bgabbha<\/em>); 7 lo\u1ea1i k\u1ebft h\u1ec7 thai (<em>niga\u1e47\u1e6dhigabbha<\/em>); 7 lo\u1ea1i ch\u01b0 thi\u00ean; 7 lo\u1ea1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi; 7 lo\u1ea1i \u00e1c qu\u1ec9 (<em>pis\u0101ca<\/em>: t\u00ec-x\u00e1-x\u00e0); 7 h\u1ed3 n\u01b0\u1edbc&#8230; C\u00f3 8 tri\u1ec7u \u0111\u1ea1i ki\u1ebfp (<em>mah\u0101kakkino<\/em>), trong kho\u1ea3ng \u0111\u00f3, b\u1ea5t lu\u1eadn k\u1ebb ngu hay b\u1eadc tr\u00ed, sau khi l\u01b0u chuy\u1ec3n lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i, s\u1ebd t\u1eadn c\u00f9ng d\u1ee9t kh\u1ed5. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, r\u1eb1ng \u201cT\u00f4i, do b\u1edfi gi\u1edbi, do b\u1edfi c\u1ea5m nguy\u1ec7n, b\u1edfi kh\u1ed5 h\u00e0nh, b\u1edfi ph\u1ea1m h\u1ea1nh, s\u1ebd l\u00e0m ch\u00edn nghi\u1ec7p ch\u01b0a ch\u00edn; ho\u1eb7c li\u00ean t\u1ee5c nh\u1eabn th\u1ecd m\u00e0 di\u1ec7t tr\u1eeb nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u00e3 ch\u00edn.\u201d Kh\u1ed5 v\u00e0 l\u1ea1c \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111ong \u0111\u1ea7y, lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ea1ch gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec \u0111\u1ec3 th\u00eam hay b\u1edbt, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec h\u01a1n hay k\u00e9m. Nh\u01b0 cu\u1ed9n ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e9m ra, n\u00f3 bung ra trong khi l\u0103n; c\u0169ng v\u1eady, ngu hay tr\u00ed sau khi l\u01b0u chuy\u1ec3n lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i s\u1ebd t\u1eadn c\u00f9ng d\u1ee9t kh\u1ed5.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u00e0y, Malalasekera cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang r\u1ea5t kh\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u, ngay c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i c\u0169ng th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m v\u00f4 v\u1ecdng.[57]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u00fd ngh\u0129a t\u00ean g\u1ecdi c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 l\u00fd do Makkhali s\u1ed1ng l\u00f5a th\u1ec3, S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i kinh&nbsp;<em>Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3<\/em>&nbsp;thu\u1eadt chuy\u1ec7n: \u00f4ng v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u00ean n\u00f4 l\u1ec7; m\u1ed9t h\u00f4m b\u01b0ng h\u1ee7 d\u1ea7u m\u00e8 \u0111i qua v\u0169ng \u0111\u1ea5t s\u00ecnh, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea3nh gi\u00e1c \u201ccoi ch\u1eebng t\u00e9!\u201d (<em>t\u0101ta m\u0101 khali<\/em>) nh\u01b0ng do v\u00f4 \u00fd \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 tr\u01b0\u1ee3t ng\u00e3 v\u00e0 l\u00e0m \u0111\u1ed5 d\u1ea7u. T\u00ean \u00f4ng sau \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Makkhali do b\u1edfi l\u1eddi c\u1ea3nh gi\u00e1c&nbsp;<em>m\u0101 khali<\/em>! Do s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng b\u1ecf ch\u1ea1y nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ee7 n\u1eafm \u00e1o k\u00e9o l\u1ea1i; \u00f4ng v\u1eabn v\u1ee5t ch\u1ea1y do \u0111\u00f3 y b\u1ecb tu\u1ed9t v\u00e0 \u00f4ng s\u1ed1ng l\u00f5a th\u1ec3 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3.[58]&nbsp;Buddhaghosa th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng k\u1ec3 lai l\u1ecbch kh\u00f4ng m\u1ea5y t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o, cho n\u00ean chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng quan t\u00e2m. Tuy nhi\u00ean, trong \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3i ng\u1eef nguy\u00ean c\u1ee7a Makkhali l\u00e0 do t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>m\u0101 khali<\/em>&nbsp;c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Pata\u00f1jali nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch kh\u00e1c h\u1eb3n. Gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch n\u00e0y n\u00f3i, t\u00ean \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Maskar\u012b kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u00ec \u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t&nbsp;<em>maskara<\/em>, m\u00e0 v\u00ec \u00f4ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng \u201cCh\u1edb t\u1ea1o c\u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p. T\u1ecbch t\u0129nh l\u00e0 t\u1ed1i th\u1eafng (<em>m\u0101 k\u1e5bta karm\u0101ni, \u015b\u0101ntir va\u1e25 \u015breyas<\/em>).\u201d T\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>maskara<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cg\u1eady tr\u00fac\u201d v\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3&nbsp;<em>maskar\u012b<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u1ec9 cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u1ea7m g\u1eady tr\u00fac. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 ng\u1eef nguy\u00ean theo ng\u1eef ph\u00e1p P\u0101\u1e47ini. Nh\u01b0ng Pata\u00f1jali cho r\u1eb1ng&nbsp;<em>maskar\u012b<\/em>&nbsp;l\u00e0 do c\u00e2u n\u00f3i&nbsp;<em>m\u0101 k\u1e5bta<\/em>: \u201cch\u1edb l\u00e0m\u201d, g\u1ea7n v\u1edbi P\u0101li&nbsp;<em>m\u0101 khali<\/em>.[59]&nbsp;Gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ng\u1eef nguy\u00ean n\u00e0y ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Maskar\u012b.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng&nbsp;<em>Bhagavati s\u016btra<\/em>, kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a K\u1ef3-na, \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch kh\u00e1c. T\u00ean \u00f4ng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecdc l\u00e0 Ma\u1e45khali. T\u1eeb<em>ma\u1e45kha<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp tu s\u0129 h\u00e0nh kh\u1ea5t (<em>bhik\u1e63\u0101ka-vi\u015be\u1e63a<\/em>) mang theo m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3n g\u1ed7 c\u00f3 h\u1ecda h\u00ecnh trong khi lang thang (<em>citraphalaka-vyagrakaro<\/em>).[60]&nbsp;Rudolf Hoernle cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e2y ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 h\u01b0 c\u1ea5u c\u1ee7a Bhagavat\u012b.[61]&nbsp;Th\u1eadt ra, t\u00ean \u00f4ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 g\u00ec, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng quan tr\u1ecdng. H\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u mu\u1ed1n x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn Makkhali hay Maskar\u012b xu\u1ea5t th\u00e2n t\u1eeb giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ea5p h\u00e8n. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i c\u1ea3 Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o cho n\u00ean ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi ch\u00e9p b\u1edfi c\u1ea3 hai ph\u00eda v\u1edbi c\u1ed1 t\u00ecnh h\u1ea1 th\u1ea5p gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt, \u0111\u00e2y c\u0169ng l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u d\u1ec5 th\u1ea5y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c t\u00f4ng s\u01b0 ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi, Makkhali c\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Ph\u1eadt \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 l\u00e0 nguy hi\u1ec3m nh\u1ea5t do b\u1edfi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m t\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn \u0111i\u00ean \u0111\u1ea3o c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Kinh&nbsp;<em>T\u0103ng chi<\/em>&nbsp;n\u00f3i: \u201cTa kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt n\u00e0o mang l\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec1u tai h\u1ea1i, kh\u00f4ng an l\u1ea1c, kh\u00f4ng l\u1ee3i \u00edch, v\u00f4 ngh\u0129a, kh\u1ed5 n\u00e3o, cho ch\u01b0 thi\u00ean v\u00e0 nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 k\u1ebb ngu si Makkhali.\u201d[62]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd r\u1eb1ng Makkhali Gos\u0101la l\u00e0 nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt quan tr\u1ecdng trong c\u00e1c nh\u00f3m \u0100j\u012bvika. \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed9c nh\u1ea5t s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp ra h\u1ec7 ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y.[63]&nbsp;Trong b\u1ea3ng ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i s\u00e1u \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p theo m\u00e0u, P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa li\u1ec7t Makkhali, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi Nanda Vaccha v\u00e0 Kisa Sa\u1e45kicca, v\u00e0o h\u1ea1ng cao nh\u1ea5t thu\u1ed9c m\u00e0u c\u1ef1c tr\u1eafng (<em>paramasukka<\/em>), nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ee7 th\u1ea5y v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng trong c\u00e1c \u0100j\u012bvika.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Makkhali \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00eau trong kinh&nbsp;<em>Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3<\/em>, thuy\u1ebft kh\u00f4ng nh\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng duy\u00ean c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u01a1i kh\u00e1c trong Kinh t\u1ea1ng P\u0101li, k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa. Ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i s\u00e1u \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p c\u0169ng v\u1eady. V\u1ea3 l\u1ea1i, s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 cao c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa d\u00e0nh cho Makkhali c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 cho th\u1ea5y \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng gi\u1eefa hai th\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u0100j\u012bvaka n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u0110i\u1ec3m \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Makkhali l\u00e0 n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh (<em>niyati-v\u0101da<\/em>: quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadn), theo \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi lo\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i; kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh b\u1edfi th\u1ea7n linh hay m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea5ng t\u1ed1i cao n\u00e0o, m\u00e0 ch\u00ednh do quy lu\u1eadt t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. M\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp b\u00ecnh d\u00e2n b\u1ecb tr\u1ecb, ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 giai c\u1ea5p d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n. Y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i, b\u1ea5t l\u1ef1c, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i v\u00e0 thi\u00ean nhi\u00ean nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh b\u1ea5t di b\u1ea5t d\u1ecbch, \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 bi quan v\u00e0 th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p b\u1ecb \u00e1p b\u1ee9c.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>3. Ajita Kesakambala<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1ecb t\u00f4ng s\u01b0 th\u1ee9 ba, Ajita Kesakambala (skt. Ajita-Ke\u015bakambal\u012b), \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 c\u0169ng b\u00e1c b\u1ecf nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p qu\u1ea3: kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 b\u1ed1 th\u00ed, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 hi\u1ebfn sinh (<em>yi\u1e6d\u1e6dha<\/em>), kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u00fang v\u1eadt (<em>huta<\/em>), kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 qu\u1ea3 d\u1ecb th\u1ee5c c\u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p thi\u1ec7n \u00e1c, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u1eddi kh\u00e1c.. con ng\u01b0\u1eddi do b\u1ed1n \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ee3p th\u00e0nh n\u00e0y, khi m\u1ec7nh chung, c\u00e1i g\u00ec l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5t tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o th\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea5t, n\u01b0\u1edbc tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o th\u00e2n n\u01b0\u1edbc, &#8230; b\u1ed1 th\u00ed l\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft b\u00e0y \u0111\u1eb7t c\u1ee7a k\u1ebb ngu \u0111\u1ed9n; nh\u1eefng ai ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng thuy\u1ebft t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i (<em>atthikav\u0101da<\/em>) l\u1eddi n\u00f3i c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang l\u00e0 h\u00fd lu\u1eadn, gi\u1ea3 d\u1ed1i, r\u1ed7ng tu\u1ebfch. Ngu c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 tr\u00ed sau khi th\u00e2n r\u00e3 th\u1ea3y \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1eaft \u0111\u1ee9t, ti\u00eau h\u1ee7y, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i sau khi ch\u1ebft.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">T\u00ean \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Ajita, v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Kesa-kambala v\u00ec \u00f4ng b\u1ec7n t\u00f3c l\u00e0m y ph\u1ee5c.&nbsp;<em>Kesakambalasutta\u1e43<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 h\u00e0nh tr\u00ec c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng: Trong c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i y ph\u1ee5c, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng t\u00f3c l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i y ph\u1ee5c bi th\u1ea3m nh\u1ea5t, th\u1ea5p h\u00e8n nh\u1ea5t (<em>kesakambalo tesa\u1e43 pa\u1e6diki\u1e6d\u1e6dho \u0101khy\u0101ti<\/em>). B\u1edfi v\u00ec, m\u00f9a n\u00f3ng th\u00ec n\u00f3 l\u00e0m cho n\u00f3ng th\u00eam, m\u00f9a l\u1ea1nh n\u00f3 khi\u1ebfn cho c\u00e0ng l\u1ea1nh; x\u1ea5u x\u00ed, h\u00f4i th\u1ed1i.&nbsp;[64]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, Barua t\u00e1n d\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 s\u1ed1ng m\u00e0 \u00f4ng xem l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kh\u1eafc k\u1ef9, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi tri\u1ebft gia Epicurus c\u1ee7a Hy-l\u1ea1p. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi v\u00e0 h\u1eadu th\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 hi\u1ec3u nh\u1ea7m \u00f4ng. Barua n\u00f3i, \u201cS\u1ef1 th\u1eadt hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean, Ajita Ke\u015bakambal\u012b c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 v\u00e0 Epicurus c\u1ee7a Hy-l\u1ea1p \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 tr\u00e1i tim thi\u1ec7n l\u01b0\u01a1ng, h\u1ecd y\u00eau c\u00e1ch s\u1ed1ng b\u00ecnh d\u1ecb v\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy cao si\u00eau.\u201d[65]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 chung v\u1edbi P\u0101y\u0101si \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt trong kinh c\u00f9ng t\u00ean&nbsp;<em>P\u0101y\u0101sisutta\u1e43<\/em>&nbsp;(D. 23)[66], thu\u1ed9c nh\u00f3m theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy v\u1eadt. C\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ch\u00e9p s\u1eed t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gh\u00e9p chung v\u00e0o nh\u00f3m C\u0101rvaka, hay Lokay\u0101ta m\u00e0 Kinh Ph\u1eadt n\u00f3i l\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n (<em>vit\u0101nda<\/em>) v\u00e0 Thu\u1eadn th\u1ebf ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o. Thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c li\u1ec7t v\u00e0o lo\u1ea1i t\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn \u0111o\u1ea1n di\u1ec7t lu\u1eadn (<em>ucchedav\u0101da<\/em>), m\u1ed9t th\u1ee9 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a h\u01b0 v\u00f4 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">P\u0101y\u0101si l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ti\u1ec3u v\u01b0\u01a1ng trong th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n Setavya thu\u1ed9c v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c Kosala. Thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f3m t\u1eaft nh\u01b0 sau: \u201cKh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ch\u00fang sinh h\u00f3a sinh; kh\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 qu\u1ea3 b\u00e1o d\u1ecb th\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p thi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 \u00e1c.\u201d[67]&nbsp;Tr\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e3o Kum\u0101ra-kassapa \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00e1 v\u1ea5t v\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf quan \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 sai l\u1ea7m t\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn n\u00e0y, v\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 P\u0101y\u0101si ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn khu\u1ea5t ph\u1ee5c, t\u1eeb b\u1ecf quan \u0111i\u1ec3m t\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cu\u1ed9c tranh lu\u1eadn gi\u1eefa ti\u1ec3u v\u01b0\u01a1ng P\u0101y\u0101si v\u00e0 Kum\u0101ra-kassapa c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi ch\u00e9p trong Kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o, v\u1edbi t\u00ean g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 vua Paesi v\u00e0 Kesi.&nbsp;<em>Sutrak\u0101\u1e45ga<\/em>&nbsp;nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y trong hai b\u00e0i t\u1ee5ng 11 v\u00e0 12: ngu c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 tr\u00ed \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t linh h\u1ed3n (<em>j\u012bva<\/em>); linh h\u1ed3n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i khi th\u00e2n x\u00e1c c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i; sau khi ch\u1ebft, linh h\u1ed3n c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 t\u00e1i sinh; kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u1ed9i, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u1edbc, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c; sau khi th\u00e2n x\u00e1c tan r\u00e3 th\u00ec linh h\u1ed3n c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i.&nbsp;[68]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Chi ti\u1ebft \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c h\u1ed9i tho\u1ea1i gi\u1eefa vua Paesi v\u00e0 Kesi c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi trong&nbsp;<em>Paesi-kah\u0101\u1e47aya\u1e43<\/em>, v\u1edbi b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch Anh c\u1ee7a Williem B. Boll\u00e9e.[69]&nbsp;Trong \u0111\u00e2y, Kesi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 l\u00e0 Kesi kum\u0101ra-sama\u1e47a, sa-m\u00f4n t\u00ean Kesi xu\u1ea5t gia t\u1eeb \u1ea5u th\u01a1, r\u00f5 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi Kum\u0101ra-kassapa trong kinh&nbsp;<em>P\u0101y\u0101si<\/em>. N\u1ed9i dung bi\u1ec7n lu\u1eadn t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt trong&nbsp;<em>Paesi-k\u0101\u1e47aya\u1e43<\/em>&nbsp;\u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng. Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng Paesi ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn thua l\u00fd v\u00e0 thay \u0111\u1ed5i quan \u0111i\u1ec3m.[70]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>4. Pakudha Kacc\u0101yana<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 ti\u1ebfp theo c\u1ee7a Pakudha Kacc\u0101yana (skt. Kakuda-K\u0101ty\u0101yana)[71]&nbsp;c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 li\u1ec7t v\u00e0o lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy v\u1eadt c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9: B\u1ea3y y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 n\u00e0y (<em>satt\u0101k\u0101y\u0101<\/em>, b\u1ea3y th\u00e2n: \u0111\u1ea5t, n\u01b0\u1edbc, l\u1eeda, gi\u00f3, kh\u1ed5, l\u1ea1c, linh h\u1ed3n, c\u00f3 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean (<em>aka\u1e6da<\/em>), kh\u00f4ng do ai s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o&#8230; \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u1ebft h\u1ea1i, ho\u1eb7c c\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft h\u1ea1i, ng\u01b0\u1eddi nghe ho\u1eb7c ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00f3i, ng\u01b0\u1eddi bi\u1ebft ho\u1eb7c ng\u01b0\u1eddi khi\u1ebfn cho bi\u1ebft. Khi m\u1ed9t ai d\u00f9ng l\u01b0\u1ee1i ki\u1ebfm s\u1eafc b\u00e9n ch\u00e9m \u0111\u1ea7u, th\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ai t\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111o\u1ea1t sanh m\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a ai c\u1ea3, l\u01b0\u1ee1i ki\u1ebfm ch\u1ec9 r\u01a1i v\u00e0o gi\u1eefa b\u1ea3y th\u00e2n m\u00e0 th\u00f4i.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i \u0111o\u1ea1n kinh li\u00ean h\u1ec7,[72]&nbsp;Buddhaghosa kh\u00f4ng cho bi\u1ebft chi ti\u1ebft v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Pakudha, m\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n \u00f4ng n\u00e0y c\u1ef1 tuy\u1ec7t d\u00f9ng n\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1ea1nh (<em>s\u012btudaka-pa\u1e6dikkhittako<\/em>), d\u00f9 ngay sau khi \u0111\u1ea1i ti\u1ec7n c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng d\u00f9ng n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ec3 r\u1eeda. Ch\u1ec9 d\u00f9ng n\u01b0\u1edbc n\u00f3ng v\u00e0 ch\u00e1o (<em>ka\u00f1jiya<\/em>). M\u1ed7i khi \u0111i qua m\u1ed9t con s\u00f4ng hay \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u01b0\u1edbc, \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e3 m\u1ea5t gi\u1edbi (<em>s\u012bla\u1e43 me bhinna<\/em>). \u00d4ng ch\u1ec9 b\u01b0\u1edbc qua sau khi l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t th\u00e1p b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1t \u0111\u1ec3 quy\u1ebft \u00fd h\u1ed9 gi\u1edbi. Basham cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00e1o nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u00f3n \u0103n h\u1eb1ng b\u1eefa v\u00e0 th\u00e1p c\u00e1t l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh tr\u00ec th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ea5y trong c\u00e1c tu s\u0129 \u0100j\u012bvika, do \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn Pakudha c\u0169ng thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m \u0100j\u012bvika, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng b\u1eb1ng Makkhali v\u00e0 P\u016bra\u1e47a.&nbsp;[73]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3y nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u cho l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng s\u1eed \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 l\u1eadp thuy\u1ebft nguy\u00ean t\u1eed lu\u1eadn. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00f3 h\u01a1i khoa \u0111\u1ea1i. Trong b\u1ea3y nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a Pakudha, c\u00f3 b\u1ed1n nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1 c\u0103n b\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn trong c\u00e1c Veda. Kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o c\u0169ng th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1ed1n nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1, t\u1ee9c b\u1ed1n \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u1ee7ng (<em>mah\u0101bh\u016bta<\/em>) l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n h\u1ee3p th\u00e0nh v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. S\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n t\u00edch n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c \u0111i s\u00e2u chi ti\u1ebft trong c\u00e1c b\u1ed9 ph\u00e1i ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u1ec1 sau, cho \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea1i th\u1eeba. Duy c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u, trong t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 lu\u1eadn gi\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 c\u1ef1c vi n\u00e0y, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn ch\u00fang l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong b\u1ed1n nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1 c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, Pakudha th\u00eam nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1&nbsp;<em>j\u012bva<\/em>, t\u1ee9c m\u1ea1ng c\u0103n, hay t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3, hay ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n. J\u012bva l\u00e0 b\u1ea3n th\u1ec3 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn trong Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha, nh\u01b0ng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 b\u1ecb bao tr\u00f9m trong v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t b\u1edfi nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t. C\u00e1c t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Pakudha kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y \u0111\u00e2u x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u00f5&nbsp;<em>j\u012bva<\/em>&nbsp;\u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, hay n\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i tinh th\u1ea7n. Trong ch\u00edn th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng c\u1ee7a Vai\u015be\u1e63ika,&nbsp;<em>\u0101tma<\/em>&nbsp;hay t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3, \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 trong thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Pakudha n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>j\u012bva,<\/em>&nbsp;c\u0169ng l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng tuy kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea5u t\u1ea1o b\u1edfi b\u1ed1n nguy\u00ean t\u1ed1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. Th\u00eam n\u1eefa, hai y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 kh\u1ed5 v\u00e0 l\u1ea1c, Pakudha c\u0169ng cho l\u00e0 th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1eb1ng. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng kh\u1ed5 v\u00e0 l\u1ea1c nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, kh\u00f4ng do ai t\u1ea1o ra ch\u00fang, kh\u00f4ng do ch\u00ednh ta m\u00e0 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng&nbsp; do ai kh\u00e1c. Cho n\u00ean, quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u00e1ng x\u1ebfp v\u00e0o lo\u1ea1i th\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u00fa lu\u1eadn (<em>sassata-v\u0101da<\/em>) nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 trong kinh Ph\u1eadt, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ti\u00ean phong c\u1ee7a nguy\u00ean t\u1eed lu\u1eadn, d\u00f9 hi\u1ec3u nguy\u00ean t\u1eed theo ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n n\u00e0o, t\u1eeb t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Hy-l\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, hay khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. N\u1ebfu mu\u1ed1n, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Pakudha ch\u1ec9 t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn trong c\u00e1c thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi m\u00e0 l\u1eadp th\u00e0nh quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ri\u00eang, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec m\u1edbi m\u1ebb. C\u00f3 l\u1ebd v\u00ec th\u1ebf m\u00e0 trong t\u01b0 li\u1ec7u Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o, l\u00e0 hai ngu\u1ed3n t\u01b0 li\u1ec7u ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ec3 h\u00ecnh dung c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi \u1edf \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9, \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng xem tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt s\u01a1 l\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ec1 \u00f4ng n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong b\u1ed1n nh\u00e0 n\u00f3i tr\u00ean, ho\u1eb7c tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp ho\u1eb7c gi\u00e1n ti\u1ebfp, kh\u00f4ng th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p qu\u1ea3, th\u1ea3y \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u1ebfp v\u00e0o nh\u00f3m<em>akriya<\/em>, ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00f4 t\u00e1c. Ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd c\u00f2n m\u01a1 h\u1ed3. Nh\u1eefng t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o mu\u1ed1n g\u1ee3i \u00fd r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd xu\u1ea5t th\u00e2n t\u1eeb giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ea5p k\u00e9m. C\u00f3 l\u1ebd v\u00ec th\u1ebf t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng Veda; v\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 ph\u1ea3n \u1ea3nh t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ea5p trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u1ea4n b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb b\u1edfi c\u00e1c giai c\u1ea5p \u0111\u1eb7c quy\u1ec1n b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n v\u00e0 s\u00e1t-\u0111\u1ebf-l\u1ecb.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>5. Sa\u00f1jaya Bela<\/strong><strong>\u1e6d\u1e6daputt<\/strong><strong>a<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1ecb th\u1ee9 n\u0103m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 trong&nbsp;<em>Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3<\/em>&nbsp;l\u00e0 Ni-ki\u1ec1n Th\u00e2n T\u1eed (Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101taputta| Nirgrantha-J\u00f1\u0101tiputra), \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f4n x\u01b0ng gi\u00e1o t\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o (Jainism), s\u1ebd n\u00f3i trong m\u1ed9t m\u1ee5c ri\u00eang.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1ecb th\u1ee9 s\u00e1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 Sa\u00f1jaya Bela\u1e6d\u1e6daputta (skt. Sa\u00f1jay\u012b Vaira\u1e6d\u1e6diputra, T\u00e1n-nh\u00e3-di T\u00ec-la-l\u00ea T\u1eed). Hai v\u1ecb \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt l\u00e0 X\u00e1-l\u1ee3i-ph\u1ea5t v\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea1i M\u1ee5c-ki\u1ec1n-li\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i theo h\u1ecdc ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi theo Ph\u1eadt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kinh&nbsp;<em>Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3<\/em>&nbsp;thu\u1eadt nh\u01b0 sau: \u201cN\u1ebfu h\u1ecfi, \u2018C\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c (<em>paro<\/em>&nbsp;<em>loko<\/em>) kh\u00f4ng?\u2019, n\u1ebfu t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 c\u00f3 \u0111\u1eddi kh\u00e1c, t\u00f4i s\u1ebd tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi, \u2018C\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c\u2019; nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 kia, kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf&#8230; N\u1ebfu h\u1ecfi, \u2018Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c ch\u0103ng?\u2019, n\u1ebfu t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 \u2018Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c\u2019, t\u00f4i s\u1ebd tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi \u2018Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00e1c\u2019; nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 kia, kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf&#8230;\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i P\u0101li li\u1ec7t thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u00e0o nh\u00f3m ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n lu\u1eadn nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i trong kinh&nbsp;<em>Ph\u1ea1m v\u00f5ng<\/em>, ki\u1ec3u l\u00fd lu\u1eadn u\u1ed1n \u00e9o nh\u01b0 con l\u01b0\u01a1n (<em>amar\u0101vikkhepika<\/em>). Kinh n\u00f3i, nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb n\u00e0y v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch nh\u01b0 th\u1eadt thi\u1ec7n, hay b\u1ea5t thi\u1ec7n, v\u00e0 v\u00ec s\u1ee3 v\u1ecdng ng\u1eef (<em>mus\u0101v\u0101dabhay\u0101<\/em>), kh\u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n v\u1ecdng ng\u1eef, n\u00f3i l\u1eddi h\u01b0 d\u1ed1i, n\u00ean h\u1ecd tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi, \u201ct\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. T\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 kia. T\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 kia&#8230;\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u t\u01b0 li\u1ec7u v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng trong ngu\u1ed3n P\u0101li c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 trong v\u0103n hi\u1ebfn ph\u01b0\u01a1ng B\u1eafc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>III. NI-KI\u1ec0N TH\u00c2N T\u1eec V\u00c0 K\u1ef2-NA GI\u00c1O<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u1ecb t\u00f4ng s\u01b0 th\u1ee9 n\u0103m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt l\u00e0 Ni-ki\u1ec1n Th\u00e2n T\u1eed (P. Nigantha N\u0101taputta, S. Nirgrantha J\u00f1\u0101tiputra).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u1eed s\u00e1ch K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o ch\u00e9p r\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3 vua Bimbis\u0101ra (T\u1ea7n-b\u00e0-sa-la) m\u00e0 h\u1ecd g\u1ecdi Se\u1e47ika, v\u00e0 con trai c\u1ee7a vua l\u00e0 Aj\u0101tas\u0101tru (A-x\u00e0-th\u1ebf) m\u00e0 h\u1ecd g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 K\u016bnika \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed c\u1ee7a Mah\u0101v\u012bra. Chi ti\u1ebft n\u00e0y c\u00f3 v\u1ebb ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt trong kinh&nbsp;<em>Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3<\/em>, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 trong \u0111\u00e2y n\u00f3i vua A-x\u00e0-th\u1ebf (K\u016bnika-Aj\u0101tasatru) \u0111\u1ebfn ph\u1ecfng \u0111\u1ea1o Ni-ki\u1ec1n Th\u00e2n T\u1eed ch\u1ec9 m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n m\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng v\u1edbi gi\u1ea3i \u0111\u00e1p c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng n\u00e0y cho nghi v\u1ea5n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecfi v\u1ec1 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 thi\u1ebft th\u1ef1c trong hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a sa-m\u00f4n, ng\u01b0\u1eddi tu \u0111\u1ea1o, l\u00e0 g\u00ec, Ni-ki\u1ec1n Th\u00e2n T\u1eed \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 b\u1ed1n lu\u1eadt nghi ti\u1ebft ch\u1ebf hay b\u1ed1n c\u1ea5m gi\u1edbi ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 (<em>c\u0101tuy\u0101sa\u1e43varasa\u1e43vuto<\/em>).[74]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B\u1ed1n lo\u1ea1i c\u1ea5m gi\u1edbi ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft c\u0169ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 b\u1ed1n c\u1ea5m nguy\u1ec7n (skt.&nbsp;<em>c\u0101tury\u0101ma dharma<\/em>) c\u1ee7a P\u0101r\u015bvara,&nbsp;[75]&nbsp; v\u1ecb Tirthantika th\u1ee9 23, ti\u1ec1n nh\u00e2n tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a Mah\u0101v\u012bra v\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u00e0 v\u1ecb cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng trong 24 Tirthantika. B\u1ed1n c\u1ea5m nguy\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a P\u0101r\u015bva g\u1ed3m kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ebft h\u1ea1i t\u1ee9c b\u1ea5t b\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ed9ng (<em>ahi\u1e43s\u0101<\/em>) t\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng s\u00e1t sanh, kh\u00f4ng tr\u1ed9m c\u1eafp (<em>asteya<\/em>), t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt t\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i d\u1ed1i (<em>satya<\/em>) v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng s\u1edf h\u1eefu (<em>aparigraiha<\/em>). Mah\u0101v\u012bra th\u00eam c\u1ea5m nguy\u1ec7n th\u1ee9 n\u0103m l\u00e0 ph\u1ea1m h\u1ea1nh (<em>brahmac\u0101rya<\/em>), t\u1ee9c tuy\u1ec7t d\u1ee5c. Trong n\u0103m \u0111i\u1ec1u c\u1ea5m gi\u1edbi c\u1ee7a Mah\u0101v\u012bra, c\u00f3 hai \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i l\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Gandhi sau n\u00e0y: b\u1ea5t b\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ed9ng (<em>ahi\u1e43s\u0101<\/em>) v\u00e0 t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt (<em>satya<\/em>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B\u1ed1n ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Th\u00e2n T\u1eed \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00eau trong kinh&nbsp;<em>Sa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3<\/em>, theo S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i, \u0111i\u1ec1u th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u01b0\u1edbc. Kinh n\u00f3i:<em>sabbav\u0101riv\u0101rito ca hoti<\/em>, S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ngh\u0129a:&nbsp;<em>v\u0101ri<\/em>&nbsp;\u1edf \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc (<em>sabbauadako<\/em>). Th\u00e2n T\u1eed ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ea5m ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 lo\u1ea1i n\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1ea1nh, v\u00ec \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng trong n\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1ea1nh c\u00f3 ch\u00fang sinh c\u00f3 tri gi\u00e1c&nbsp;[76]&nbsp;(<em>sattasa\u00f1\u00f1\u012b<\/em>), n\u1ebfu d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u00e1t h\u1ea1i ch\u00fang sinh \u1ea5y. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, Bodhi d\u1ecbch Anh c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u kh\u00e1c:&nbsp;<em>curbed by all curbs<\/em>, \u201c\u01b0\u1edbc th\u00fac b\u1eb1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi \u01b0\u1edbc th\u00fac\u201d.[77]&nbsp;Theo&nbsp; \u0111\u00f3 th\u00ec t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>v\u0101ri<\/em>&nbsp;ngo\u00e0i ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cn\u01b0\u1edbc\u201d nh\u01b0&nbsp; S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ngh\u0129a, n\u00f3 c\u0169ng c\u00f2n c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201c\u01b0\u1edbc th\u00fac, ng\u0103n c\u1ea5m\u201d nh\u01b0 trong t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>v\u0101rita<\/em>&nbsp;v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 ph\u00e2n t\u1eeb qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>v\u0101reti<\/em>. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, trong t\u1eeb \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a Pali Text Society, t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>v\u0101ri<\/em>kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a th\u1ee9 hai. T\u1eeb \u0111i\u1ec3n P\u0101li-Nh\u1eadt c\u1ee7a&nbsp; V\u00e2n T\u1ec9nh Chi\u00eau Thi\u1ec7n (Kumoi) c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 n\u00eau m\u1ed9t ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>v\u0101ri<\/em>&nbsp;l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>n\u01b0\u1edbc<\/em>. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 Bodhi li\u00ean h\u1ec7 b\u1ed1n ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Nigantha v\u1edbi b\u1ed1n c\u1ea5m nguy\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a P\u0101r\u015bva n\u00ean cho&nbsp;<em>v\u0101ri<\/em>&nbsp;th\u00eam m\u1ed9t ngh\u0129a n\u1eefa, v\u00ec trong b\u1ed1n c\u1ea5m nguy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i g\u00ec \u0111\u1ebfn n\u01b0\u1edbc. Tuy nhi\u00ean, nh\u01b0&nbsp; S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i cho th\u1ea5y \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a \u0111i\u1ec1u ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 n\u00e0y l\u00e0 c\u00e1c ch\u00fang sinh trong n\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1ea1nh ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 ch\u1ec9 v\u00ec n\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1ea1nh. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u0169ng ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi tin t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c K\u1ef3-na nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00eau trong&nbsp;<em>\u0100c\u0101r\u0101\u1e45gas\u016btra<\/em>, Th\u00e1nh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o: C\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u sinh v\u1eadt s\u1ed1ng trong n\u01b0\u1edbc; v\u00e0 v\u1edbi tu s\u0129 K\u1ef3-na n\u01b0\u1edbc ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 s\u1ed1ng, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 c\u00f3 linh h\u1ed3n. Cho n\u00ean, tu s\u1ef9 K\u1ef3-na c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ea5p h\u00e0nh c\u1ea5m ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi n\u01b0\u1edbc. Kinh n\u00e0y c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo \u0111\u1ea1o Ph\u1eadt v\u00ec nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y t\u1ef1 cho l\u00e0 h\u1ecd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 do, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p u\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 l\u00e0m v\u1ec7 sinh.[78]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u1eed \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp trong Kinh Ph\u1eadt, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t&nbsp;<em>Up\u0101li-sutta<\/em>&nbsp;v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>C\u016b\u1e37adukkhandha-sutta<\/em>&nbsp;trong Majjhima-Nik\u0101ya.[79]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kinh&nbsp;<em>Up\u0101li<\/em>&nbsp;m\u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i gi\u1eefa Ph\u1eadt v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u00ean l\u00e0 D\u012bghatapass\u012b (Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Kh\u1ed5 H\u00e0nh). \u0110\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt h\u1ecfi D\u012bghatapass\u012b: Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101\u1e6daputta thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp bao nhi\u00eau nghi\u1ec7p cho s\u1ef1 t\u1ea1o t\u00e1c \u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 cho s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n kh\u1edfi \u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p? D\u012bghatapass\u012b tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi: Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101\u1e6daputta kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u1eadp qu\u00e1n thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p, m\u00e0 c\u00f3 t\u1eadp qu\u00e1n n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 ph\u1ea1t (<em>da\u1e47\u1e0da<\/em>). \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecfi c\u00f3 bao nhi\u00eau lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea1t, tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi: c\u00f3 ba; \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t (<em>k\u0101yada\u1e47\u1e0da<\/em>), ng\u1eef ph\u1ea1t (<em>vac\u012bda\u1e47\u1e0da<\/em>) v\u00e0 \u00fd ph\u1ea1t&nbsp; (<em>manoda\u1e47\u1e0da<\/em>). Ba lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea1t n\u00e0y kh\u00e1c nhau, trong \u0111\u00f3 th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t. Gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea1t n\u00e0y, S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i P\u0101li[80]&nbsp;n\u00f3i, c\u00e1c Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha cho r\u1eb1ng hai lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea1t th\u00e2n v\u00e0 ng\u1eef thu\u1ed9c lo\u1ea1i v\u00f4 t\u00e2m; th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 gi\u00f3 th\u1ed5i lay c\u00e0nh c\u00e2y, l\u00e0m n\u01b0\u1edbc tr\u00f4i, trong \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec l\u00e0 t\u00e2m c\u1ea3. Ng\u1eef ph\u1ea1t, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 gi\u00f3 th\u1ed5i khi\u1ebfn hai c\u00e0nh c\u00e2y c\u1ecd v\u00e0o nhau ph\u00e1t ra ti\u1ebfng, v\u00e0 gi\u00f3 th\u1ed5i khi\u1ebfn n\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u1ea3y c\u00f3 ti\u1ebfng, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u00e1i g\u00ec l\u00e0 t\u00e2m. V\u00ec v\u1eady, Ni-ki\u1ec1n Th\u00e2n T\u1eed ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t l\u00e0 nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Thuy\u1ebft gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt kh\u00e1c h\u1eb3n v\u1edbi Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha. Ng\u00e0i kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i \u201cph\u1ea1t\u201d m\u00e0 n\u00f3i \u201cnghi\u1ec7p\u201d,&nbsp; v\u00e0 trong ba nghi\u1ec7p, \u00fd nghi\u1ec7p quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i gi\u1eefa Ph\u1eadt v\u00e0 D\u012bghatapass\u012b \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00e2y th\u00ec ng\u01b0ng. D\u012bghatapass\u012b sau \u0111\u00f3 \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101\u1e6daputta v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt cu\u1ed9c h\u1ed9i ki\u1ebfn v\u1eeba r\u1ed3i. Trong s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt n\u00e0y c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn l\u1eddi khoa tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a N\u0101\u1e6daputta r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u00fd ph\u1ea1t th\u1ea5p k\u00e9m kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch chi ti\u1ebft g\u00ec th\u00eam. L\u00fac b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd c\u00f3 tr\u01b0\u1edfng gi\u1ea3 Up\u0101li v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 t\u1ee5c gia \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed c\u1ee7a Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101\u1e6daputta c\u0169ng c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t.&nbsp; Sau khi nghe t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt, Up\u0101li cao h\u1ee9ng t\u00ecnh nguy\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ebfn lu\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn v\u1edbi Sa-m\u00f4n Gotama v\u00e0 h\u1ee9a h\u1eb9n s\u1ebd n\u1eafm Sa-m\u00f4n Gotama m\u00e0 xoay nh\u01b0 l\u1ef1c s\u0129 xoay th\u00f9ng r\u01b0\u1ee3u.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong cu\u1ed9c lu\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn v\u1edbi Ph\u1eadt, Up\u0101li c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch n\u00e0o v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t, duy ch\u1ec9 x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. Nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt n\u00eau nhi\u1ec1u th\u00ed d\u1ee5 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf ch\u00ednh \u00fd nghi\u1ec7p c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh h\u01a1n th\u00e2n nghi\u1ec7p. Ch\u00ednh \u00fd nghi\u1ec7p \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u00e2n nghi\u1ec7p.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, Up\u0101li ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt v\u00e0 cho r\u1eb1ng Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101\u1e6daputta \u0111\u00e3 sai l\u1ea7m khi ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t. Sau \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u00fd ngh\u0129a th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t c\u1ee7a Ni-ki\u1ec1n Th\u00e2n T\u1eed s\u1ebd r\u00f5 h\u01a1n khi \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ebfn kinh&nbsp;<em>Ti\u1ec3u kh\u1ed5 u\u1ea9n&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;(<em>C\u016b\u1e37adukkhandha-sutta<\/em>). Kinh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thuy\u1ebft cho Mah\u0101n\u0101ma h\u1ecd Th\u00edch khi Ph\u1eadt tr\u00fa t\u1ea1i Ca-t\u00ec-la-v\u1ec7.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Sau khi n\u00eau c\u00e1c nguy hi\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a d\u1ee5c (<em>k\u0101ma<\/em>), \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i cu\u1ed9c h\u1ed9i tho\u1ea1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u1eed t\u1ea1i n\u00fai Linh th\u1ee9u, th\u00e0nh V\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00e1. T\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e2y, tr\u00ean ng\u1ecdn \u0110\u00e1 \u0111en (K\u0101lasil\u0101) b\u00ean tri\u1ec1n n\u00fai Ti\u00ean th\u00f4n&nbsp; (Isigilipassa), c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 tu s\u0129 thu\u1ed9c nh\u00f3m Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u1eed \u0111ang tu kh\u1ed5 h\u00e0nh. H\u1ecd lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n \u0111\u1ee9ng th\u1eb3ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi, kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu ng\u1ed3i, t\u1ef1 g\u00e2y ra v\u00e0 ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u1ef1ng nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3 nh\u1ee9c nh\u1ed1i. \u0110\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt h\u1ecfi h\u1ecd \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 kh\u1ed5 h\u00e0nh nh\u01b0 v\u1eady; nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb n\u00e0y tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi: \u201cNiga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u0101\u1e6daputta l\u00e0 v\u1ecb Nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft tr\u00ed, Nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft ki\u1ebfn, d\u00f9 \u0111i hay \u0111\u1ee9ng, l\u00fac ng\u1ee7 hay th\u1ee9c, Tri Ki\u1ebfn lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n hi\u1ec7n ti\u1ec1n. Ng\u00e0i d\u1ea1y r\u1eb1ng, nh\u1eefng nghi\u1ec7p \u00e1c m\u00e0 ch\u00fang t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia s\u1ebd do nh\u1eefng kh\u1ed5 h\u00e0nh nh\u1ee9c nh\u1ed1i k\u1ecbch li\u1ec7t n\u00e0y m\u00e0 b\u1ecb ti\u00eau di\u1ec7t. Trong hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y do \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 b\u1edfi th\u00e2n, ng\u1eef v\u00e0 \u00fd m\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p \u00e1c v\u1ecb lai s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n. Do v\u1eady, b\u1eb1ng kh\u1ed5 h\u00e0nh m\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p c\u0169 b\u1ecb ti\u00eau di\u1ec7t. Do kh\u00f4ng t\u1ea1o nghi\u1ec7p m\u1edbi m\u00e0 c\u00f3 v\u00f4 l\u1eadu trong v\u1ecb lai. Do v\u00f4 l\u1eadu v\u1ecb lai m\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn. Do nghi\u1ec7p di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn m\u00e0 kh\u1ed5 di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn. Do kh\u1ed5 di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn m\u00e0 c\u1ea3m th\u1ecd c\u0169ng di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn. Do th\u1ecd di\u1ec7t t\u1eadn m\u00e0 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 kh\u1ed5 b\u1ecb di\u1ec7t tr\u1eeb. Ch\u00fang t\u00f4i ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">T\u1eeb h\u1eefu l\u1eadu \u2013&nbsp;<em>\u0101srava<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp trong \u0111o\u1ea1n d\u1eabn tr\u00ean, v\u1ec1 ngh\u0129a g\u1ed1c kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t l\u1edbn gi\u1eefa Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o; \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 d\u00f2ng ch\u1ea3y. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi K\u1ef3-na, n\u00f3 l\u00e0 d\u00f2ng ch\u1ea3y, hay c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 h\u00ecnh t\u01b0\u1ee3ng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 c\u1ed1ng r\u00e3nh, qua \u0111\u00f3&nbsp;<em>karma<\/em>&nbsp;hay nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1eabn tr\u00f4i v\u00e0o linh h\u1ed3n (<em>j\u012bva<\/em>). Karma hay nghi\u1ec7p \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng; n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n ch\u1ec9 cho h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng hay h\u00e0nh vi nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u trong c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng kh\u00e1c, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ngh\u0129a g\u1ed1c v\u1eabn ch\u1ec9 cho h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. N\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u00e2n t\u1eed v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, g\u1ecdi&nbsp;<em>karma-varg\u0101n\u0101<\/em>&nbsp;(nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t), tr\u00e0n \u0111\u1ea7y trong kh\u00f4ng gian. Khi linh h\u1ed3n (<em>j\u012bva<\/em>) b\u1ecb khu\u1ea5y \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1edfi tham, s\u00e2n, si, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t ngang qua th\u00e2n, ng\u1eef v\u00e0 \u00fd, n\u00f3 g\u00e2y n\u00ean s\u1ef1 ch\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ed9ng cho m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng xung quanh khi\u1ebfn cho c\u00e1c ph\u00e2n t\u1eed v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0y theo d\u00f2ng&nbsp;<em>\u0101srava<\/em>&nbsp;(l\u1eadu) m\u00e0 tr\u00f4i v\u00e0o, r\u1ed3i b\u00e1m v\u00e0o linh h\u1ed3n v\u00e0 tr\u00f9m k\u00edn linh h\u1ed3n khi\u1ebfn n\u00f3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh \u00f4 nhi\u1ec5m b\u1edfi nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu lu\u00e2n chuy\u1ec3n trong lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i. C\u00f3 hai d\u00f2ng ch\u1ea3y. D\u00f2ng th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t,&nbsp;<em>bh\u0101v\u0101srava<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 th\u1ec3 t\u00e1nh l\u1eadu, \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u00e2m l\u00fd. Theo d\u00f2ng ch\u1ea3y n\u00e0y c\u00e1c ph\u00e2n t\u1eed nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t x\u00e2m nh\u1eadp. Th\u1ec3 t\u00e1nh l\u1eadu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u01a1i ngu\u1ed3n b\u1edfi c\u00e1c y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 nh\u01b0 t\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn (<em>mithy\u0101tva<\/em>), \u00e1c gi\u1edbi (<em>avirati<\/em>), ph\u00f3ng d\u1eadt (<em>pram\u0101da<\/em>), c\u00e1c \u00f4 tr\u01b0\u1ee3c (<em>ka\u1e63\u0101ya<\/em>) nh\u01b0 tham, s\u00e2n, ki\u00eau m\u1ea1n, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c gia h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a th\u00e2n, ng\u1eef, \u00fd (<em>yoga<\/em>). Ch\u00ednh b\u1edfi c\u00e1c y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 n\u00e0y t\u1ea1o ra s\u1ef1 xung \u0111\u1ed9ng m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00ean h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn c\u00e1c nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t. Khi c\u00e1c ph\u00e2n t\u1eed nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t tr\u00f4i v\u00e0o linh h\u1ed3n, n\u00f3 b\u00e1m d\u00ednh linh h\u1ed3n nh\u01b0 b\u1ee5i b\u00e1m v\u00e0o da \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00f4i d\u1ea7u; ch\u00fang t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh d\u00f2ng ch\u1ea3y g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>karm\u0101srava<\/em>&nbsp;\u2013 nghi\u1ec7p l\u1eadu. Nghi\u1ec7p l\u1eadu t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng g\u00e2y ch\u01b0\u1edbng ng\u1ea1i nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh (<em>j\u00f1\u0101n\u0101var\u0101n\u012bya<\/em>: hu\u1ec7 ch\u01b0\u1edbng, v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>dar\u015ban\u0101varan\u012bya<\/em>: ki\u1ebfn ch\u01b0\u1edbng), g\u00e2y ra c\u1ea3m th\u1ecd kh\u1ed5 l\u1ea1c l\u00e0m ch\u01b0\u1edbng ng\u1ea1i c\u1ea3m th\u1ecd di\u1ec7u l\u1ea1c c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n (<em>vedan\u012bya<\/em>: thu\u1eadn th\u1ecd ch\u01b0\u1edbng), v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ngu si l\u00e0m ch\u01b0\u1edbng ng\u1ea1i ch\u00e1nh t\u00edn (<em>mohan\u012bya<\/em>: thu\u1eadn si ch\u01b0\u1edbng). B\u1ed1n ch\u01b0\u1edbng ng\u1ea1i n\u00e0y c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi ch\u01b0\u1edbng thi\u1ec7n nghi\u1ec7p (<em>antar\u0101ya-karma<\/em>) thu\u1ed9c lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p t\u1ed5n h\u1ea1i (<em>gh\u0101tika-karma<\/em>). N\u0103m lo\u1ea1i nghi\u1ec7p n\u00e0y, k\u1ec3 th\u00eam ba lo\u1ea1i n\u1eefa: th\u1ecd nghi\u1ec7p (<em>\u0101yu\u1e63ka-karma<\/em>) h\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecbnh tu\u1ed5i th\u1ecd, danh nghi\u1ec7p (<em>n\u0101ma-karma<\/em>) quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh th\u00e2n v\u1eadt l\u00fd cho linh h\u1ed3n, v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7ng t\u00e1nh nghi\u1ec7p (<em>gotra-karma<\/em>) quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh d\u00f2ng h\u1ecd, giai c\u1ea5p m\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n th\u00e1c sinh. Do b\u1ecb bao tr\u00f9m b\u1edfi nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t (<em>karma-varg\u0101n\u0101<\/em>), linh h\u1ed3n trong d\u00f2ng l\u01b0u chuy\u1ec3n sinh t\u1eed xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 nghi\u1ec7p th\u00e2n (<em>k\u0101rm\u0101na-\u015barira<\/em>), c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 trong h\u00ecnh th\u00e1i c\u1ee7a nghi\u1ec7p. N\u1ebfu nghi\u1ec7p m\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00edch l\u0169y; nghi\u1ec7p c\u0169 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea1o s\u1ea1ch d\u1ea7n, cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi linh h\u1ed3n tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i nguy\u00ean th\u1ee7y c\u1ee7a n\u00f3; tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i v\u00f4 t\u1eadn ki\u1ebfn (<em>anantadar\u015bna<\/em>), v\u00f4 t\u1eadn tr\u00ed (<em>anantaj\u00f1\u0101na<\/em>), di\u1ec7u l\u1ea1c (<em>anantasukha<\/em>), v\u00f4 t\u1eadn tinh t\u1ea5n (<em>anantav\u012brya<\/em>). B\u1ea5y gi\u1edd linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t (<em>mukta-j\u012bva<\/em>). Qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh c\u1ea1o b\u1ecf nghi\u1ec7p ch\u1ea5t b\u00e1m n\u01a1i linh h\u1ed3n n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>nirjar\u0101<\/em>&nbsp;(t\u1ea9y tr\u1eeb). \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 c\u00e1c Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u1eed tr\u00ean s\u01b0\u1eddn Ti\u00ean th\u00f4n gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch v\u1ec1 \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 kh\u1ed5 h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201clinh h\u1ed3n\u201d n\u00f3i tr\u00ean, nguy\u00ean Sanskrit l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>j\u012bva<\/em>. T\u1eeb n\u00e0y trong kinh Kim cang, La-th\u1eadp d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 \u201cth\u1ecd gi\u1ea3\u201d khi\u1ebfn cho h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 s\u1edb gi\u1ea3i kinh n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u hi\u1ec3u sai. N\u01a1i kh\u00e1c, Huy\u1ec1n Trang d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ea1ng\u201d hay \u201cm\u1ea1ng c\u0103n\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 duy tr\u00ec s\u1ef1 s\u1ed1ng. C\u00e1i m\u00e0 c\u00e1c Jaina g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>j\u012bva<\/em>, trong c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 ph\u00e1i kh\u00e1c g\u1ecdi n\u00f3 l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>\u0101tman<\/em>, t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3; Sa\u1e43khy\u0101 g\u1ecdi n\u00f3 l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>puru\u1e63a<\/em>. Jaina ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i th\u00e0nh n\u0103m ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 trong hai nh\u00f3m:&nbsp;<em>j\u012bva<\/em>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<em>m\u1ea1ng<\/em>&nbsp;hay&nbsp;<em>h\u1eefu m\u1ea1ng<\/em>, lo\u1ea1i c\u00f3 linh h\u1ed3n; v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>aj\u012bva<\/em>, v\u00f4 m\u1ea1ng, kh\u00f4ng linh h\u1ed3n. N\u0103m ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 n\u0103m&nbsp;<em>astik\u0101ya<\/em>: h\u1eefu th\u00e2n, th\u00e2n hay b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i chi\u1ebfm c\u1ee9 m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3m trong kh\u00f4ng gian l\u1edbn hay nh\u1ecf t\u00f9y tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p.&nbsp;<em>J\u012bva<\/em>, m\u1ea1ng, hay t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3, hay linh h\u1ed3n, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i chi\u1ebfm c\u1ee9 m\u1ed9t kho\u1ea3ng kh\u00f4ng gian nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh, l\u1edbn hay nh\u1ecf t\u00f9y theo c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a lo\u00e0i m\u00e0 n\u00f3 th\u00e1c sinh trong \u0111\u00f3. C\u00e1c&nbsp;<em>astik\u0101ya<\/em>&nbsp;kh\u00e1c, g\u1ed3m&nbsp;<em>dharma<\/em>&nbsp;(ph\u00e1p) ch\u1ec9 c\u00e1c d\u1eef li\u1ec7u cho nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c gi\u00e1c quan;&nbsp;<em>adharma<\/em>&nbsp;(phi ph\u00e1p), kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i d\u1eef li\u1ec7u n\u00f3i tr\u00ean;&nbsp;<em>\u0101k\u0101\u015ba<\/em>&nbsp;(h\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng), v\u00e0&nbsp;<em>pudgala<\/em>. T\u1eeb cu\u1ed1i n\u00e0y c\u0169ng th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ea5y trong kinh Ph\u1eadt, ho\u1eb7c phi\u00ean \u00e2m l\u00e0 \u201cb\u1ed5-\u0111\u1eb7c-gi\u00e0-la\u201d, ho\u1eb7c d\u1ecbch ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cnh\u00e2n\u201d, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, ho\u1eb7c nh\u00e2n c\u00e1ch ho\u1eb7c nh\u00e2n x\u01b0ng; \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 c\u00f3 ch\u1ee9c n\u0103ng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 th\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng; n\u00f3 c\u0169ng l\u00e0 t\u1ef1 ng\u00e3 gi\u1ea3 t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u01b0u chuy\u1ec3n trong lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i. Nh\u01b0ng trong t\u00edn l\u00fd Jaina n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. Pudgala l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i ph\u00e2n t\u1eed v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3 vi t\u1ebf, vi t\u1ebf cho \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n t\u00edch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u1eefa, b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 g\u1ecdi n\u00f3 l\u00e0 c\u1ef1c vi (<em>param\u0101\u1e47u<\/em>). C\u00e1c ph\u00e2n t\u1eed n\u00e0y t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i tr\u00e0n \u0111\u1ea7y kh\u1eafp kh\u00f4ng gian. Khi linh h\u1ed3n b\u1ecb khu\u1ea5y \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1edfi c\u00e1c \u00f4 nhi\u1ec5m tham, s\u00e2n, si c\u00e1c th\u1ee9, khi\u1ebfn m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng quanh n\u00f3 b\u1ecb khu\u1ea5y \u0111\u1ed9ng, c\u00e1c ph\u00e2n t\u1eed v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t&nbsp;<em>pudgala<\/em>&nbsp;n\u00e0y theo \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn&nbsp;<em>\u0101srava<\/em>&nbsp;tr\u00f4i v\u00e0o b\u00e1m d\u00ednh linh h\u1ed3n; nh\u1eefng ph\u00e2n t\u1eed n\u00e0y b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh&nbsp;<em>karma-pudgala<\/em>, ch\u1ea5t th\u1ec3 nghi\u1ec7p. Cho n\u00ean, nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c Jaina kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi c\u1ee7a th\u00e2n, ng\u1eef, \u00fd, m\u00e0 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0, nghi\u1ec7p l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 thu\u1ed9c trong lo\u1ea1i&nbsp;<em>astik\u0101ya<\/em>: h\u1eefu th\u00e2n.&nbsp; H\u1eb3n l\u00e0 do \u00fd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y m\u00e0 c\u00e1c Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u1eed ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t, nh\u01b0 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 c\u01b0 s\u1ef9 Up\u0101li n\u00eau l\u00ean \u0111\u1ec3 tranh lu\u1eadn v\u1edbi Ph\u1eadt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o ghi ch\u00e9p xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o ch\u1ee7 m\u00ecnh t\u1eeb ch\u1ee7ng t\u1ed9c J\u00f1\u0101t\u1e5bka K\u1e63atriya. J\u00f1\u0101t\u1e5bka \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi Sanskrit l\u00e0 J\u00f1\u0101tiputra (P\u0101li: N\u0101\u1e6daputta), H\u00e1n d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 \u201cTh\u00e2n T\u1eed\u201d, ho\u1eb7c phi\u00ean \u00e2m l\u00e0 \u201cNh\u00e3-\u0111\u1ec1 T\u1eed\u201d. Nirgrantha (P\u0101li. Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha), H\u00e1n \u00e2m l\u00e0 \u201cNi-ki\u1ec1n\u201d v\u00e0 d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 \u201cLy-h\u1ec7\u201d (ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o). Nirgrantha l\u00e0 danh t\u1eeb ch\u1ec9 cho ch\u00fang \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed xu\u1ea5t gia, theo ngh\u0129a g\u1ee1 b\u1ecf t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c th\u1ebf gian nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i trong&nbsp;<em>S\u016btrak\u1e5bt\u0101\u1e45ga<\/em>.[81]&nbsp;T\u1eeb n\u00e0y c\u0169ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 c\u1edfi b\u1ecf h\u1ebft y ph\u1ee5c. Ph\u00e1i \u015avetambara (B\u1ea1ch y) cho r\u1eb1ng Mah\u0101v\u012bra s\u1ed1ng l\u00f5a th\u1ec3 nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t, v\u00ec v\u1eady h\u1ecd ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1eadn y ph\u1ee5c. Tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i Digambara (Thi\u00ean y) cho r\u1eb1ng l\u00f5a th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t, v\u00ec v\u1eady h\u1ecd ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i l\u00f5a th\u1ec3. C\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed t\u00f4n x\u01b0ng \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Mah\u0101v\u012bra, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5ng \u0110\u1ea1i H\u00f9ng. Nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f4n x\u01b0ng l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>Jina,<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u1ec9 cho v\u1ecb \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0&nbsp; t\u1eeb<em>Buddha<\/em>&nbsp;ch\u1ec9 cho v\u1ecb \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e1c ng\u1ed9 v\u1eady.&nbsp;<em>Jaina<\/em>&nbsp;l\u00e0 t\u1eeb ph\u00e1i sinh c\u1ee7a&nbsp;<em>Jina<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u00f3i theo quan \u0111i\u1ec3m l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c, Mah\u0101v\u012bra c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt, v\u1ed1n xu\u1ea5t th\u00e2n t\u1eeb giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eeb b\u1ecf \u0111\u1eb7c quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p.[82]&nbsp;Gi\u00e1o l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Mah\u0101v\u012bra c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ed1i b\u1ecf \u0111\u1eb7c quy\u1ec1n giai c\u1ea5p, v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o l\u00e0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng giai c\u1ea5p. Nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e2n ph\u1ea1t c\u1ee7a Ni-ki\u1ec1n t\u1eed c\u00f3 v\u1ebb nhu\u1ed1m m\u00e0u bi quan v\u00ec ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh, \u0111\u1ec3 cho th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb h\u00e0nh h\u1ea1 v\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 kh\u1ed1ng ch\u1ebf t\u00e2m. Ph\u1eadt n\u00eau gi\u00e1o ngh\u0129a \u00fd ph\u1ea1t, b\u1eb1ng \u00fd ch\u00ed m\u00e0 kh\u1ed1ng ch\u1ebf th\u00e2n, v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng t\u00e2m kh\u1ed1ng ch\u1ebf v\u1eadt, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">***<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n Veda ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng ngu\u1ed3n l\u1ea1c quan ph\u1ea3n \u1ea3nh nh\u00e2n sinh quan c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb, v\u00ec h\u1ecd ch\u1ec9 bi\u1ebft sinh ra \u0111\u1ec3 h\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ee5 t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng kh\u1ed5 l\u1ee5y c\u1ee7a h\u1ea1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 h\u1ecd xem l\u00e0 b\u1ea7n c\u00f9ng n\u00f4 l\u1ec7. T\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng b\u00ecnh d\u00e2n do th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean b\u1ecb \u00e1p b\u1ee9c n\u00ean c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng bi quan. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ea1i b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn b\u1ecb bao tr\u00f9m trong b\u00f3ng t\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh kh\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7t cho n\u00ean tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 do b\u1ea5t l\u1ef1c tr\u01b0\u1edbc b\u1ea5t c\u00f4ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i m\u00e0 n\u1ea3y sinh nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ee9 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng m\u00ea t\u00edn d\u1ecb \u0111oan. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng, \u00fd th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 n\u1ed7i kh\u1ed5 tri\u1ec1n mi\u00ean t\u1eeb \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y sang \u0111\u1eddi kh\u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 chu\u1ed7i lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i b\u1ea5t t\u1eadn; \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y t\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean h\u00e0m ch\u1ee9a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y trong c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng Veda.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nghi\u1ec7p qu\u1ea3 v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i l\u00e0 hai n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng gi\u00e1o l\u00fd trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na gi\u00e1o. C\u00e1c Upanishad c\u0169ng d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn trong gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a l\u1ea1c quan giai c\u1ea5p. \u0110\u00e2y c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh th\u1ea5y c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 li\u00ean t\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p b\u00e1o v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i t\u1eeb Veda t\u1ed1i c\u1ed5 cho \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 cho \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ea3 Vivekanada, Aurobindo v\u00e0 Gandhi. Theo \u0111\u00f3, thuy\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt v\u00e0 K\u1ef3-na li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn nghi\u1ec7p c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 c\u1ea3i bi\u1ebfn t\u1eeb n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng Veda v\u00e0 Upanishads. R\u00f5 r\u00e0ng \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea3o ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trong H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o t\u1ea1i Chicago (26 September 1893), Vivekanada \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u \u1ea4n-\u0111\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 \u0110\u1ee9c Ph\u1eadt Th\u00edch-ca l\u00e0 h\u00f3a th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o, \u0111\u1ea1o Ph\u1eadt c\u1ee7a Th\u00edch-ca M\u00e2u-ni l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o. Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 t\u1ea1i c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc, nh\u01b0 Trung Hoa v\u00e0 Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n, l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9a con ng\u1ed7 ngh\u1ecbch (rebel child) c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o. Nh\u1eefng n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a Kum\u0101rila v\u00e0 \u015aa\u1e45kara cho ta hi\u1ec3u r\u00f5 \u00fd ngh\u0129a l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u1ef1 th\u1ef1c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed d\u1ee9t kho\u00e1t, trong Veda kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i nh\u01b0 ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u ng\u00e0y nay c\u1ea3 trong \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o. \u00dd ngh\u0129a nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i, gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t, l\u00e0 tr\u1ecdng \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u00e1o ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o Veda \u0111\u1ec3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u1ea4n gi\u00e1o kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 c\u01b0\u1ee1ng l\u1ea1i xu th\u1ebf l\u1ecbch s\u1eed t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00ean b\u1eaft bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i l\u01b0\u1ee3m nh\u1eb7t nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u00e1o l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Ph\u1eadt v\u1edbi c\u1ea3i bi\u1ebfn th\u00edch h\u1ee3p theo t\u1eadp qu\u00e1n giai c\u1ea5p nh\u01b0 Kum\u0101rila v\u00e0 \u015aa\u1e45kara \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[1]&nbsp;Krishan, Y. (1988), \u201cThe Vedic origins of the doctrine of karma\u201d, South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp 51-55; \u0111\u1ebfm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 40 l\u1ea7n t\u1eeb karma \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng trong Rg-Veda, ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn ch\u1ec9 ngh\u0129a h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh vi t\u1ebf t\u1ef1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[2]&nbsp;Surendranath Dasgupta,&nbsp;<em>A History of Indian Philosophy<\/em>, vol. I. Cambridge, 1922, tr. 21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[3]&nbsp;M\u1ee5c s\u01b0 Kevin Williams vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 t\u00e1i sinh trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh (<em>Reincarnation in the Bible<\/em>), l\u00fd lu\u1eadn: ch\u00ednh Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa do Paul l\u1eadp \u1edf Roma m\u1edbi b\u00e1c b\u1ecf s\u1ef1 t\u00e1i sinh. Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Jurusalem sau khi Roma x\u00e2m l\u0103ng Israel n\u0103m 70 b\u1ecf ch\u1ea1y sang Ai-c\u1eadp, Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i n\u00e0y th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn c\u00f3 t\u00e1i sinh. \u00d4ng d\u1eabn ch\u1ee9ng Matthew 11: 13-14: &#8220;For all the prophets and the law have prophesied until John. And if you are willing to receive it, he is Elijah who was to come.&#8221;&nbsp;Kinh Th\u00e1nh ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t, Ma-th\u00eau 11: \u201c<sub>13<\/sub>&nbsp;Cho \u0111\u1ebfn \u00f4ng Gio-an, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ng\u00f4n s\u1ee9 c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 L\u1ec1 Lu\u1eadt \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i ti\u00ean tri.<sub>14<\/sub>&nbsp;V\u00e0 n\u1ebfu anh em ch\u1ecbu tin l\u1eddi t\u00f4i, th\u00ec \u00f4ng Gio-an ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 \u00ca-li-a, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ebfn.<sub>15<\/sub>&nbsp;Ai c\u00f3 tai th\u00ec nghe.\u201d \u0110o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y n\u00f3i Eliah t\u00e1i sinh th\u00e0nh John Baptist. Elijah l\u00e0 v\u1ecb ti\u00ean tri Do th\u00e1i n\u00f3i trong C\u1ef1u \u01b0\u1edbc, th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 9 tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. T\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i La-m\u00e3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf tin t\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u01b0 v\u1eady.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[4]&nbsp;Surendranath Dasgupta, op.cit, tr. 25.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[5]&nbsp;<em>Rig Veda<\/em>, tr. by Ralph T.H. Griffith, [1896].<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[6]&nbsp;Joanna Jurewicz, \u201cThe \u1e5agveda, \u2018small scale\u2019 societies and rebirth eschatology.\u201d&nbsp;<em>Indologica Taurinensia,&nbsp;<\/em>34 (2008); p. 183-210.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[7]&nbsp;<em>ki\u00f1c\u0101pi, bho gotama, br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101 n\u0101n\u0101magge pa\u00f1\u00f1apenti, addhariy\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101 tittiriy\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101 chandok\u0101 br\u0101hma<\/em><em>\u1e47\u0101 bavh<\/em><em>\u0101rijjh<\/em><em>\u0101 br<\/em><em>\u0101hma<\/em><em>\u1e47\u0101, atha kho sabb<\/em><em>\u0101ni t<\/em><em>\u0101ni niyy<\/em><em>\u0101nik<\/em><em>\u0101 niyyanti takkarassa brahmasahabyat<\/em><em>\u0101ya<\/em>. C\u00e1c b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n n\u00e0y thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp nhi\u1ec1u con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng kh\u00e1c nhau nh\u01b0ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1u d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ed9ng tr\u00fa v\u1edbi Brahma: Addhariy\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47a: d\u00f2ng b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n Adhvaryu truy\u1ec1n th\u1eeba<em>Rigveda<\/em>&nbsp;ho\u1eb7c&nbsp;<em>Yajurveda<\/em>. Tittiiriy\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101: truy\u1ec1n th\u1eeba&nbsp;<em>Yajurveda<\/em>&nbsp;ma thu\u1eadt, B\u1e5bhadaranyaka-upanishad thu\u1ed9c d\u00f2ng truy\u1ec1n th\u1eeba n\u00e0y. Chandok\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101: d\u00f2ng b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n Chandoga truy\u1ec1n&nbsp;<em>S\u0101maveda<\/em>. Bavh\u0101rijjh\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47\u0101: d\u00f2ng b\u00e0-la-m\u00f4n Bahv\u1e5bca truy\u1ec1n&nbsp;<em>Rigveda<\/em>. K.N. Jayatilleke,&nbsp;<em>Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge<\/em>; \u201cAppendix\u201d.&nbsp; Routledge, 2008;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[8]&nbsp;<em>yath\u0101k\u0101r\u012b yath\u0101c\u0101r\u012b tath\u0101 bhavati, s\u0101dhuk\u0101r\u012b s\u0101dhur bhavati, p\u0101pak\u0101r\u012b p\u0101po bhavati; pu\u1e47ya\u1e25 pu\u1e47yena karma\u1e47\u0101 bhavati, p\u0101pa\u1e25 p\u0101pena; athau khalv \u0101hu\u1e25; k\u0101mamaya ev\u0101yam puru\u1e63a iti, sa yath\u0101k\u0101mo bhavati, tat kratur bhavati, yat kratur bhavati, tat karma kurute, yat karma kurute, tat abhisampadyate.<\/em>&nbsp;<em>B\u1e5bhadaranyaka Upanishad<\/em>&nbsp;4.4.5.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[9]&nbsp;Lal Mani Joshi:<em>Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Hinduism<\/em>. An Essay on their Origins and Interactions: \u201civ. Date of the Oldest Unpanishads.\u201d BPS Online Edition \u00a9 (2008).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[10]&nbsp;S. Dasgupta ph\u1ecfng \u0111\u1ecbnh kho\u1ea3ng 200 tr\u01b0\u1edbc Tl.&nbsp;<em>A History of Indian Philosophy I&nbsp;<\/em>(1922), p. 370.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[11]&nbsp;MS 1.1,1:&nbsp;<em>athato dharmajij\u00f1\u0101si<\/em>. ibid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[12]&nbsp;Wogihara,&nbsp;<em>arth\u0101patti<\/em>: t\u1ef1 minh, suy l\u00fd, k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn t\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean; th\u00f4ng ngh\u0129a. Ti\u1ebfng Anh th\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1ecbch l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>implication<\/em>&nbsp;(h\u00e0m ng\u1ee5),&nbsp;<em>neccessary presupposition<\/em>&nbsp;(gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[13]&nbsp;Sau pram\u0101\u1e47a theo M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101:&nbsp;<em>pratyak\u1e63a<\/em>&nbsp;(hi\u1ec7n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng),&nbsp;<em>anum\u0101na<\/em>&nbsp;(t\u1ec9 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng),&nbsp;<em>\u015babda<\/em>&nbsp;(thanh l\u01b0\u1ee3ng),&nbsp;<em>upam\u0101\u1e47a<\/em>&nbsp;(th\u00ed d\u1ee5),&nbsp;<em>arth\u0101patti<\/em>(th\u00f4ng ngh\u0129a),&nbsp;<em>anupalabdhi<\/em>&nbsp;(b\u1ea5t kh\u1ea3 \u0111\u1eafc). Dign\u0101ga th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 hai: hi\u1ec7n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng (tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c), t\u1ec9 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng (lu\u1eadn l\u00fd); ngo\u00e0i ra, c\u00e1c ngu\u1ed3n kh\u00e1c mang t\u00ednh gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u, ch\u1ee7 quan v\u00e0 c\u00e1 bi\u1ec7t, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb \u0111\u00fang hay sai.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[14]&nbsp;Wilhem Halbfass,&nbsp;<em>Tradition and Reflection: Exploration in Indian Thought<\/em>&nbsp;(1991), p. 302. Shlomo Biderman (<em>Scripture and Knowledge<\/em>:&nbsp;<em>An Essay on Religious Epistemology<\/em>, 1995,&nbsp; p. 213, n. 87&amp;88), d\u1eabn Halbfass, v\u00e0 ch\u00fa th\u00edch th\u00eam: Jaimini c\u0169ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp t\u1ea3n m\u1ea1n trong&nbsp;<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;I.2.9.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[15]&nbsp;S. Dasgupta, op.cit., d\u1eabn \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a G\u0101ng\u0101n\u0101tha Jh\u0101, ph\u1ecfng \u0111\u1ecbnh kho\u1ea3ng 57 tr\u01b0\u1edbc Tl. Govinda Chandr Pande,&nbsp;<em>Life and Thought of Sa\u1e45k\u0101r\u0101c\u0101rya&nbsp;<\/em>(t\u00e1i b\u1ea3n 2004, tr. 276),&nbsp; ph\u1ecfng \u0111\u1ecbnh kho\u1ea3ng \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 2 Tl.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[16]&nbsp;MS. 1.1.2:&nbsp;<em>codanalak\u1e63ano\u2019rtho dharma\u1e25<\/em>.ibid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[17]&nbsp;Trong Sanskrit,&nbsp;<em>\u015babda<\/em>&nbsp;v\u1eeba l\u00e0 \u00e2m thanh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t ra n\u01a1i mi\u1ec7ng, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 cho t\u1eeb ng\u1eef;&nbsp;<em>artha<\/em>, ch\u1ec9 m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch, \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 \u00fd ngh\u0129a. Cho n\u00ean, trong l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft thanh lu\u1eadn n\u00e0y,&nbsp;<em>\u015babda = artha<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[18]&nbsp;<em>\u015a\u0101bara-bh\u0101\u1e63ya<\/em>&nbsp;2.1.1,&nbsp;<em>ato yas tasya v\u0101caka\u1e25 \u015babdas tato\u2019p\u016brva prat\u012byata iti\/ tena bh\u0101va\u015babd\u0101 ap\u016brvasya codak\u0101 iti br\u016bma\u1e25\/ na tu ka\u015bacchabda\u1e25 s\u0101k\u1e63\u0101d ap\u016brvasya v\u0101cako\u2019sti\/&#8230;tasm\u0101d bh\u0101v\u0101rth\u0101\u1e25 karma\u015babdo\u2019p\u016brva codayant\u012bti.<\/em>&nbsp;Ph\u1ee5 l\u1ee5c t\u01b0 li\u1ec7u sanskrit b\u1edfi Othmar G\u00e4chter:&nbsp;<em>Hermeneutics and Language in P\u016brvaa M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101: A Study in \u015a\u0101bara Bh\u0101\u1e63ya<\/em>, 1990,&nbsp; p. 138.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[19]&nbsp;op. cit. p.301.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[20]&nbsp;Wilhem Halbfass, op.cit.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[21]&nbsp;<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra (MS)&nbsp;<\/em>vi. 1. 4:&nbsp;<em>a\u1e45gah\u012bna\u015b ca<\/em>,; vi.1. 5:&nbsp;&nbsp;<em>\u015budrasya prati\u1e63idhatv\u0101t<\/em>. V\u0103n b\u1ea3n Sanskrit: The Sacred Books of the Hindus, vol. xxvii, part i:&nbsp;<em>M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101s\u016btra of Jaimini,<\/em>&nbsp;reprint 1923.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[22]&nbsp;<em>Tantrav\u0101rttika<\/em>&nbsp;ad. 1.3.4:&nbsp;<em>lobh\u0101di k\u0101ra\u1e47a\u1e43 c\u0101tra bahv ev\u0101nyat prat\u012byate\/ yasmin sannihite n\u0101sti m\u016bl\u0101ntar\u0101num\u0101\/\/ \u015bky\u0101daya\u015b ca sarvatra kurv\u0101\u1e47\u0101 dharmade\u015ban\u0101m\/ hetuj\u0101lavinirmukta\u1e43 na kad\u0101cana kurvate\/<\/em>\/ D\u1eabn b\u1edfi Kei Kataoka, Fukuok,&nbsp;<em>Manu and the Buddha for Kum\u0101rila and Dharmak\u012brti<\/em>.&nbsp; Religion and Logic in Buddhist Philosophical Analysis. Proceedings of the Fourth International Dharmakirti Conference. Vienna, August 23-27, 2005. Ed. Helmut Krasser, Horst Lasic, Eli Franco, Birgit Kellner. Wien. , pp.255-269.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[23]&nbsp;A History of Indian Philosophy, p. 280.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[24]&nbsp;<em>Vai\u015be\u1e63ikas\u016btra&nbsp;<\/em>I.i.1:&nbsp;<em>athato dharmma\u1e43 vy\u0101khy\u0101ma\u1e25<\/em>. V\u0103n b\u1ea3n Sanskrit: The Sacred Books of the Hindus, vol. vi: The Vai\u015be\u1e63ika s\u016btra of Kanada, 1923.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[25]&nbsp;op.cit. I.i.3:&nbsp;<em>tad-vacan\u0101d \u0101mn\u0101yasys pr\u0101m\u0101\u1e47yam<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[26]&nbsp;op.cit. v.i.1:&nbsp;<em>\u0101tmasa\u1e43yogaprayatn\u0101bhy\u0101\u1e43 haste karmma<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[27]&nbsp;W. Halbfass,&nbsp;<em>Tradition<\/em>, p. 308.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[28]&nbsp;ibid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[29]&nbsp;<em>Brahmas\u016btra<\/em>&nbsp;(BS) III.2.38:&nbsp;<em>phalam ata\u1e25 upapatte\u1e25<\/em>\/ Brahmas\u016btra, with text and translation by Swami Vireswarananda, 1847.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[30]&nbsp;<em>Bhagavadg\u012bta<\/em>&nbsp;vii.21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[31]&nbsp;op.cit.:&nbsp;<em>tad-adhigama uttarap\u016brv\u0101ghyor a\u015ble\u1e63avin\u0101u tadvyapade\u015b\u0101t<\/em>\/\/<em>itarasy\u0101py evam asa\u1e43\u015ble\u1e63a\u1e25 p\u0101te tu<\/em>\/\/<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[32]&nbsp;<em>Tradtion<\/em>, p.295.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[33]&nbsp;BS. iv. 1. 13-15:&nbsp;<em>tad-adhigama uttarap\u016brv\u0101ghayor a\u015ble\u1e63avina\u015bau, tad vyapade\u015b\u0101t\/ itarasy\u0101py evam asa\u1e43\u015ble\u1e63a\u1e25, p\u0101te tu\/ an\u0101rabdhak\u0101rye eva tu p\u016brve, tad avadhe\u1e25<\/em>\/\/<\/p>\n\n\n\n<pre class=\"wp-block-preformatted\">[34] <em>nahi pr\u0101yascitt\u0101dibhir hetubhir vin\u0101 karm\u0101\u1e47am uccheda\u1e25 sambhavyate<\/em>. Trong b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch Anh c\u1ee7a Swami Vireswarananda, nh\u01b0ng \u0111o\u1ea1n li\u00ean h\u1ec7 <em>pr\u0101\u015bcitta<\/em> (h\u1ed1i t\u00e2m) b\u1ecb l\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ecf.<\/pre>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[35]&nbsp;<em>drsta-srutabhyam yat papam\/ janann apy atmano &#8216;hitam<\/em><em><br>karoti bhuyo vivasah\/ prayascittam atho katham\/\/&nbsp;<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[36]&nbsp;<em>Bhagavadg\u012bta<\/em>&nbsp;x.3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[37]&nbsp;Bhagavadg\u012bta (BG) ii. 11, 12.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[38]&nbsp;BG ii. 48.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[39]&nbsp;BG. iv. 17-18.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[40]&nbsp;<em>ann\u0101d bhavanti bh\u016bt\u0101ni parjany\u0101d annasambhava\u1e25\/ yaj\u00f1\u0101d bhavati parjanyo yaj\u00f1a\u1e25 karmasamudbhava\u1e25\/\/ karma brahmodbhava\u1e43 viddhi brahm\u0101k\u1e63arasamudbhavam\/ tasm\u0101t sarvagata\u1e43 brahma nitya\u1e43 yaj\u00f1e prati\u1e63\u1e6ditam<\/em>\/\/<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[41]&nbsp;S.12.11 (PTS, ii.11):&nbsp;<em>catt\u0101rome, bhikkhave, \u0101h\u0101r\u0101 bh\u016bt\u0101na\u1e43 v\u0101 satt\u0101na\u1e43 \u1e6dhitiy<\/em><em>\u0101 sambhaves<\/em><em>\u012bna<\/em><em>\u1e43 v<\/em><em>\u0101 anuggah\u0101ya<\/em>, \u201cC\u00f3 b\u1ed1n lo\u1ea1i th\u1ef1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ec3 cho c\u00e1c ch\u00fang sinh \u0111\u00e3 sinh t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, ho\u1eb7c t\u01b0 tr\u1ee3 cho c\u00e1c ch\u00fang sinh c\u1ea7u sinh.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[42]&nbsp;<em>eva\u1e43 pravartita\u1e43 cakra\u1e43 n\u0101nuvartayat\u012bha ya\u1e25 agh\u0101yur indriy\u0101r\u0101mano mogha\u1e43 p\u0101ha sa j\u012bvati<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[43]&nbsp;<em>S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1aphala\u0101-sutta<\/em>; D. 2; H\u00e1n d\u1ecbch t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng:&nbsp;<em>Tr\u01b0\u1eddng A-h\u00e0m 17<\/em>, kinh 27 \u201cSa-m\u00f4n qu\u1ea3\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[44]&nbsp;ibid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[45]&nbsp;A (PTS) iii.383.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[46]&nbsp;<em>Mah\u0101lisutttam<\/em>, S (PTS) 3.69.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[47]&nbsp;<em>Sam\u00f1\u00f1aphalasuttava\u1e47\u1e47a\u1e43<\/em>; DA (PTS) 1. 132.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[48]&nbsp;<em>p\u016bra\u1e47a<\/em>&nbsp;(P\u0101li) c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201c\u0111\u00e0y\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[49]&nbsp;A (PTS) 4.428.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[50]&nbsp;Arthur Llewellyn Basham,&nbsp;<em>History and Doctrines of the&nbsp;<\/em><em>\u0100j\u012bvikas, a Vanished Indian Religion<\/em>; Delhi, 2002; p. 81, 20-202.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[51]&nbsp;Benimadhab Barua,&nbsp;<em>A History of PreBuddhist Indian Philosophy<\/em>, Calcuta, 1921; p. 279.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[52]&nbsp;<em>Devoroha\u1e47avatthu<\/em>; DhA (PTS) iii. pp. 199ff.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[53]&nbsp;A. L. Basham,&nbsp;<em>op.ci<\/em>t., tr. 88.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[54]&nbsp;C\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a P\u016bra\u1e47a Kassapa; xem \u0111o\u1ea1n tr\u00ean.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[55]&nbsp;S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i, ibid., n\u0103m nghi\u1ec7p: nghi\u1ec7p y ch\u1ec9 n\u0103m c\u0103n (<em>pa\u00f1cindriyavasena<\/em>); ba nghi\u1ec7p: th\u00e2n, ng\u1eef, \u00fd; nghi\u1ec7p (<em>kamme ca<\/em>): th\u00e2n v\u00e0 ng\u1eef; n\u1eeda nghi\u1ec7p (<em>upa\u1e0d\u1e0dhakamme ca<\/em>): \u00fd nghi\u1ec7p.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[56]&nbsp;<em>a\u1e6d\u1e6dha purisabh\u016bmiyo<\/em>: b\u00e1t nh\u00e2n \u0111\u1ecba, 8 giai \u0111o\u1ea1n ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. S\u1edb gi\u1ea3i, ibid.: ngu \u0111\u1ed9n \u0111\u1ecba (<em>mandabh\u016bmi<\/em>), h\u00ed ti\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ecba (<em>khi\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101bh\u016bmi<\/em>), ng\u1eef qu\u00e1n s\u00e1t \u0111\u1ecba (<em>padav\u012bma\u1e43sabh\u016bmi<\/em>), tr\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ecba (<em>ujugatabh\u016bmi<\/em>), h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ecba (<em>sekkhabh\u016bmi<\/em>), sa-m\u00f4n \u0111\u1ecba (<em>sama\u1e47abh\u016bmi<\/em>), th\u1eafng ti\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ecba (<em>jinabh\u016bmi<\/em>), th\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ecda \u0111\u1ecba (<em>pannabh\u016bmi<\/em>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[57]&nbsp;<em>Dictionary of Pali Proper Names<\/em>, New Delhi 2003; p. 399.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[58]&nbsp;<em>Sama\u00f1\u00f1aphalasuttava\u1e47\u1e47a\u1e43<\/em>, DA (PTS) i. 144.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[59]&nbsp;A.L. Basham,&nbsp;<em>op.cit<\/em>. p. 79.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[60]&nbsp;William-Monier cho t\u1eeb&nbsp;<em>ma\u1e45kha<\/em>&nbsp;2 \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a: a. ng\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u00e2m v\u1ecbnh trong cung \u0111\u00ecnh (royal bard or panegyst); b. tu s\u0129 h\u00e0nh kh\u1ea5t thu\u1ed9c m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 ph\u00e1i n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 (a mendicant of a partic. order).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[61]&nbsp;ERE. i. p. 260; d\u1eabn b\u1edfi Basham, op.cit., tr. 35, n. 4.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[62]&nbsp;<em>Makkhali-sutta<\/em>, A. (PTS) i. 33.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[63]&nbsp;Basham, op.cit., tr. 35.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[64]&nbsp;<em>Kesakambalasutta\u1e43<\/em>, S (PTS) i. 287.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[65]&nbsp;Benimadhab Barua,&nbsp;<em>A History of Pre-Buddhist Indian Philosophy<\/em>, Motilal Banarsidass, (January 1, 1998); tr. 290.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[66]&nbsp;H\u00e1n d\u1ecbch t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng,&nbsp;<em>Tr\u01b0\u1eddng A-h\u00e0m<\/em>&nbsp;quy\u1ec3n 7, kinh s\u1ed1 7: \u5f0a\u5bbf\u7d93&nbsp;<em>T\u1ec7-t\u00fa kinh<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[67]&nbsp;D. 23 (PTS) ii. 253:&nbsp;<em>itipi natthi paro loko, natthi satt\u0101 opap\u0101tik\u0101, natthi sukatadukka\u1e6d\u0101na\u1e43&nbsp; kamm\u0101na\u1e43 phala\u1e43 vip\u0101ko ti.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[68]&nbsp;Cf.&nbsp;<em>Jaina Sutras, Part II (SBE45)<\/em>, tr. by Hermann Jacobi, [1895],&nbsp;<em>Sutrak\u1e5bt\u0101\u1e45ga<\/em>&nbsp; I. 1., 11-12; tr. 237.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[69]&nbsp;<em>Paesi-kah\u0101\u1e47aya\u1e43,&nbsp;<\/em>edited by Williem B. Boll\u00e9e, Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 2002.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[70]&nbsp;Cf. Erich Frauwallner,&nbsp;<em>History of Indian Philosophy: The Nature-philosophical schools and the Vai\u015be\u1e63ika<\/em>; Delhi 1993; vol. II, p. 218.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[71]&nbsp;Barua,&nbsp;<em>op.cit<\/em>, \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi Pippal\u0101da \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea5y trong Pra\u015ba-upanishad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[72]&nbsp;DA (PTA) i. 144.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[73]&nbsp;<em>op.cit<\/em>. tr. 92.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[74]&nbsp;<em>niga\u1e47\u1e6dho sabbav\u0101riv\u0101rito ca hoti, sabbav\u0101riyutto ca, sabbav\u0101ridhuto ca, sabbav\u0101riphu\u1e6do ca<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[75]&nbsp;Kailash Chand Jain&nbsp;<em>Lord Mah\u0101v\u012bra and His Times<\/em>, Dehli 1991, tr. 16.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[76]&nbsp;MA. (PTS) 1.168:&nbsp;<em>so kira s\u012btodake sattasa\u00f1\u00f1\u012b hoti, tasm\u00e0 na ta\u1e43 va\u1e37a\u00f1jeti<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[77]&nbsp;Bhikkhu Bodhi,&nbsp;<em>The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha:<\/em><em>sabbav\u0101riv\u0101rito<\/em>, \u201ccurbed by all curbs\u201d;&nbsp;<em>sabbav\u0101riphu\u1e6do, \u201c<\/em>claimed by all curbs\u201d. Thanissaro Bhikkhu d\u1ecbch b\u1ed1n ph\u00f2ng h\u1ed9 n\u00e0y: \u201cobstructed by all waters, conjoined with all waters, cleansed with all waters, suffused with all waters.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[78]&nbsp;Hermann Jacobi, \u0100c\u0101r\u0101\u1e45ga-s\u016btra,&nbsp;<em>Jaina Sutras, Part II (Sacrd Books of the East vol.22)<\/em>, tr. by Hermann Jacobi, [1884], p. 6.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[79]&nbsp;M 56 (PTS 1.372 ff):&nbsp;<em>Up\u0101lisutta\u1e43<\/em>. H\u00e1n,&nbsp;<em>Trung A-h\u00e0m<\/em>&nbsp;quy\u1ec3n 13, s\u1ed1 133 \u201c\u01afu-b\u00e0-li kinh.\u201d \u2013 M 14 (PTS 1.91 ff)<em>C\u016b\u1e37adukkhakkhandhasutta\u1e43<\/em>. H\u00e1n,&nbsp;<em>Trung A-h\u00e0m, quy\u1ec3n 25<\/em>, s\u1ed1 100 \u201cKh\u1ed5 \u1ea5m kinh\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[80]&nbsp;<em>Up\u0101lisuttava\u1e47\u1e47a\u1e43<\/em>, MA (PTS) 3.53.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[81]&nbsp;<em>S\u016btrak\u1e5bt\u0101\u1e45ga<\/em>, Anh d\u1ecbch H. Jacobi, Book 1 Lecture 14 \u201cThe Nirgrantha\u201d. The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 45, 1895.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[82]&nbsp;C\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed K\u1ef3-na cho r\u1eb1ng Mah\u0101v\u012bra l\u00e0 con trai c\u1ee7a vua Siddh\u0101rtha, v\u1ecb vua r\u1ea5t c\u00f3 th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c cai tr\u1ecb th\u00e0nh Ku\u1e47\u1e0dapura (ho\u1eb7c Ku\u1e47\u1e0dugr\u0101ma). Nh\u01b0ng Jacobi (<em>Jaina-s\u016btra I<\/em>, introduction, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 45, 1895; p. xi) cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e2y ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 khoa \u0111\u1ea1i. Ku\u1e47\u1e0dapura \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n Ko\u1e6dig\u0101ma. N\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t khu ngo\u1ea1i \u00f4 c\u1ee7a Vai\u015bali (V\u1ec7-x\u00e1-li) th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a Videha. V\u00ec v\u1eady, Siddh\u0101rtha c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u1eadn tr\u01b0\u1edfng hay x\u00e3 tr\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u00f4ng thu\u1ed9c giai c\u1ea5p k\u1e63atriya; v\u00e0 v\u1ee3 \u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>k\u1e63atriy\u0101n\u012b<\/em>&nbsp;(s\u00e1t-l\u1ecb n\u1eef) ch\u1ee9 ch\u01b0a h\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0&nbsp;<em>dev\u012b<\/em>&nbsp;(v\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1eadu hay ho\u00e0ng h\u1eadu).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">T.S.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ngu\u1ed3n: H\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00edch Ph\u1eadt Vi\u1ec7t<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>2818\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0http:\/\/tamhoc.org\/dulieu\/giaophap\/nhanqualuanhoi\/Nghieptrongtriethoctongiaoando_files\/like.htmlC\u1ee1 ch\u1eef:\u00a0 S\u1ef1 th\u1ef1c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed d\u1ee9t kho\u00e1t, trong Veda kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 lu\u00e2n h\u1ed3i nh\u01b0 ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u ng\u00e0y nay\u2026<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":2069,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[68],"tags":[],"td_series":[],"class_list":["post-2068","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-nhan-qua-nghiep-bao-luan-hoi"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2068","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2068"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2068\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2070,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2068\/revisions\/2070"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2069"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2068"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2068"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2068"},{"taxonomy":"td_series","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tamhoc.org\/trang-chu\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/td_series?post=2068"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}